EXAMINERS 

I COMPANION 




LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

l^^:"^^ 

§i}n^.yr. iiJMnBit l?^ 

Shelf.TA-fc. 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 




TH0MPS0R'S 

Teacher's=* 
*=Exaininer. 

STILL MORE POPULAR THAN EVER. 
REVIS ED and EMLA RGED. 

THE TEACHER'S EXAMINER, giving a general review 
of the Common and High School Studies, in a series of ques- 
tions and answers, is a work consisting of hearly four hundred 
pages, neatly printed and elegantly bound, having been prepared 
for the use of Teachers and Students in making preparation for 
examinations, and also for use in Common and High Schools, for 
daily, weekly, and monthly reviews. THE EXAMINER em- 
braces the following branches: 

1 History. «• Physical Geography, lO. Arithmetic, 

2. Grammar. 7. Reading, 11. Philosophy, 

3. Civil Government, 8. Physiology, J*. Astronomy, 

4. Geography, 9. Writing, 13. Botany. 

5. Orthography, 

1. No Teacher should be without a copy of the EXAMINER. 

2. It contains over 5,000 questions and answers systematically 
arranged. . 

3. The work is endorsed by the best educational men of the 

country. ^ ^ ., ^ , 

4. Over 75,000 copies have been sold m the U. S. and Canada. 

5. Nothing like it for reviews and test-work, and it is being 
used in many schools. 

6. If you are dreading an examination, purchase a copy of the 
EXAMINER ; it will guide you safely through. 

7. The price of the EXAMINER is not exorbitant, but 
within the reach of all. 

8. The EXAMINER has already had a greater sale than 
manv first-class text-books. 

9. " Please exhibit this advertisement to some teacher friend who 
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Please address, 

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ATTENTION, TEACHERS 

AND 

STUDENTS. 

SKETCHES OF 

ENGLISH /qNDflMDRIC/lN 

LITERATORS 

Is an excellent work recently published. la alphabetical order jt 
mentions the time of birth and death (if dead) of each English and 
American writer ; his birthplace ; where he died ; where educated ; 
his family connections, whether good or bad ; his career in life, 
whether moral or immoral ; and the most important works he has 
written. This book embraces numerous modern writers, and impor- 
tant men of our day, such as can not be found in any other work on 
Literature, as well as all of the noteworthy Literators of ancient 
times. This popular, durable, and reasonable in price treatise, will 
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THE 



EXAMINER'S Companion, 



-A- 



GENERAL REVIEW OF QUESTIONS^>ANSWERS 



COMMON AND HIGH SCHOOL BRANCHES. EMBRACING 

THOSE STUDIES NOT INCLUDED IN THE 

TEACHER'S EXAMINER. TO BE USED BY 

TEACHERS AND THOSE FITTING 

THEMSELVES FOR 

TEACHERS. 



TO AID THE STUDENT, STUDYING FOR ANY PROFESSION, IN 
HIS HIGHER GRADES OF STUDY. 



'"V 






JlIN 8 1887/ 

V 
Prof. ALBERT HENRY THOMPSON, 

Author of 

"The Teaohek's Examineb," "Sketches of English and 
Amekican Literators," Etc. 



CHICAGO, ILL, 

1887. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1887, 

BY 

PROF. ALBERT HENRY THOMPSON, 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 




After meeting with unparalleled success in the sales of a 
former publication entitled The Teacher's Examiner, 
the author decided to write and dedicate the present 
volume to Teachers and Students as a Companion to the 
ExAAfiNER, embracing all of those subjects of importance 
not taken up in the last named woi'k. The book consists 
of questions and answers on nearly all of the branches 
herein contained, and is designed as an aid to Teachers, 
Students, and those desirous of reviewing the higher grades 
of study. A few objections have been raised by would-be 
critics detrimental to the use of Question Books by 
Teachers and Students; but the writer, after several years' 
experience as a Teacher, believes them to be a help to the 
above-mentioned persons rather than a hinderance. It is 
further stated that in reviewing his studies preparatory to 
an examination, etc., it would be more advantageous for 
the Student to peruse his text-books, instead of resorting 
to a Question Book. To this assertion doubts may arise. 
To be sure there are those fully capable of selecting from 
the text-books the subjects of importance, and questions 
which should be retained in their minds, while others are 
as equally incapable of performing this task, and the 
Question Book acts as a guide. Another feature of this 
work is brevity, the author deeming it much better to take 
up a part of science and be able to use it, than to be 
continually studying the whole and fail to retain in the 
mind any portion of the subject. 

Thanking my patrons for the appreciation of former 
literary productions, and trusting that the present work 
will give equally as good satisfaction, the author remains 
as ever. Yours with respect, 

A. H. Thompson. 




Theory and Practice of Teachiof. 




QUESTIONS. 



1. What manner of spirit should a teacher possess? 

2. Are teachers found in our schools who lack the 
spirit for their work? 

3. What may be said of other professions? 

4. How should the teacher perform his duty? 

5. Is the teacher alone responsible for the results of 
education? 

6. Is the teacher responsible for the bodily health of 
the child? 

7. Is the teacher responsible for the intellectual growth 
of the child? 

8. Name one of the branches which the child should 
first become acquainted with, 

9. Name another branch which the child should first 
be able to comprehend. 

10. What subject would you present after Mental 
Arithmetic? 

11. What subject should accompany Geography? 

12. How soon would you have the child commence 
Writing? 

(9) 



10 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

13. At what age would you instruct the child to com- 
mence using the Pen? 

14. What subject may succeed Mental Arithmetic? 

15. Should Composition be commenced by the child 
early in life, or late? 

16. When should Grammar be commenced? 

17. What can you say of the manner of study? 

18. What may be said of Collateral study? 

19. Should the teacher be a judge of human nature? 

20. Would you place an unprincipled man in the school- 
room ? 

21. Is the teacher responsible for the Religious Train- 
ing of the young? 

22. May there be a common ground which the teacher 
can occupy, and to which no reasonable man can object? 

23. Should the teacher aim to be a model for his pupils 
to follow? 

24. How may the teacher improve the community in 
which he moves? 

25. What can you say of the neatness and cleanliness 
of the teacher? 

26. Should any attention be paid to the teeth? 

27. What is here said of the nails? 

28. What can you say of the dress of the teacher? 

29. On the use of tobacco by the teacher? 

30. Is the order system desirable in every teacher? 

31. What may be said regarding the courtesy of the 
teacher? 

32. For punctuality, what should be the teacher's rule? 

33. What may be said of the teacher's habits of 
study? 

34. In mentioning the literary qualifications of the 
teacher, what can you say of Orthography? 

35. What may be said of the teacher's reading qualifi- 
cations? 

36. Of his writing qualifications? 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING QUESTIONS. 11 

37. What may be said of the teacher's knowledge of 
Geography? 

38. Should the teacher have a knowledge of History? 

39. A knowledge of Mental Arithmetic? 

40. What may be said of Written Arithmetic? 

41. Is it often a teacher is found without some knowl- 
edge of English Grammar? 

42. What may be said of Algebra? 

43. What may be said of Geometry? 

44. Are the branches Plane Trigonometry and Survey- 
ing taught in our schools? 

45. Should the teacher acquire a knowledge of Natural 
Philosophy? 

46. Should the teacher be behind the age in the de- 
partment of Chemistry? 

47. What is the importance of Human Physiology? 

48. What may be said ,of Intellectual and Moral Phi- 
losophy? 

49. What may be said of Rhetoric and Logic? 

50. Is Book-keeping essential to the teacher? 

51. Are teachers, in general, well versed in Book-keep- 
ing? 

52. What may be said of the Science of Government? 

53. Do you consider Drawing an essential part of the 
teacher's learning? 

54. Is Vocal Music essential to the teacher? 

55. Upon what should the size of a school-house de- 
pend? 

56. What is the best form for school-houses? 

57. How should a school-house be warmed? 

58. How should a school-room be ventilated? 

59. Of what use are school records? 

60. What is meant by the organization of a school? 

61. What advantages will be gained by forming 
acquaintances of parents and pupils before the opening of 
the school? 



12 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

62. On the first day of school, what should be the 
principal business of the teacher? 

63. What directions should be closely observed during 
the first day of school? 

64. Should school officers be present on the opening of 
a school? 

65. Would you make an opening address to your pupils 
on the first day of school? 

66. Would you, on each morning, open school with 
some general exercise? 

67. What are some of the advantages of a program 
in school? 

68. Name some incentives to study which are of doubt- 
ful propriety. 

69. What are some of the proper incentives to study? 
"70. What are some of the objects of education? 

71. Name some of the objects of a recitation. 

72. What are some of the" moral objects of a recita- 
tion? 

73. What preparation should the teacher make for the 
recitation? 

74. What is your definition of school government? 

75. What may be considered as some of the most im- 
portant qualifications of the teacher? 

76. Define the term "discipline." 

77. What is education? Physical education? 

78. What can you say of Intellectual education? Moral 
education? 

79. In what divisions are the faculties of the mind 
comprised? 

80. What does education do for the individual? 

81. What does education do for a people? 

82. Name some of the most common evils of our 
schools. 

83. Would you require your pupils to sit, or stand, 
while reading and answering questions? 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING QUESTIONS. ■ 13 

84. Is it advisable to allow a pupil to leave his seat 
without permission? 

85. Would you omit yard supervision over your pupils? 

86. Should whispering be allowed in school on the plea 
of "allowing pupils to assist each other" ? 

87. Would you deem it a mistake to allow disorder in 
the school-room during recess? 

88. Would you dispute with an angry parent in pres- 
ence of your pupils? 

89. In case a parent comes for an explanation of any 
misunderstanding in regard to school management, what 
course should the teacher pursue? 

90. Do children like to have their own way at school? 

91. Would you try to startle or scare a class into being 
orderly? 

92. Would you make rules in your school to be followed 
by the pupils? 

93. Is it advisable to use a bell in school as a signal 
for order? 

94. Sliould the teacher avoid excitement on his j^art in 

SL'llOol? 

'Jo. Do you believe in whipping pupils for disciplinary 
purposes merely? 

90. Would you call upon a pupil to answer a question 
before the question has been given? 

97. Would you avoid being a slave of any text-book? 

98. Would you talk much while teaching? 

99. In teaching, would you adopt the use of many long 
words? 

100. Do you deem it advisable to be cold and formal 
while teaching? 



Theory and Practice of TeachlDf, 







ANSWERS. 



1. A spirit that scorns all the rewards of earth, and 
seeks that highest of all rewards, an approving conscience 
and an approving God; a spirit that earnestly inquires 
what is right, and that dreads to do what is wrong; a 
spirit that can recognize and reverence the handiwork of 
God in every child, and that burns with the desire to be 
instrumental in training it to the highest attainment of 
which it is capable. 

2. Yes. There are too many teachers f oi;nd in our schools 
without the spirit for their work which necessity requires. 
They not only have not given attention to any preparation 
for their work, but resort to it from motives of personal 
convenience, and in many instances from a consciousness 
of being unfit for everything else. 

3. In other pi'ofessions this is not so. The lawyer is 
not admitted to the bar till he has passed a course of 
thorough preparation, and even then but warily employed. 
The physician goes through his course of reading and his 
course of lectui'es, before he is called in to heal the mala- 
dies of the body. 

(14) 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ANSWERS. 15 

4. The teacher should go to his duty full of his work. 
He should be impressed with its overwhelming impor- 
tance. He should feel that his mistakes, though they may 
not speedily ruin him, may permanently injure his pupils. 

5. He is not. The parent has an overwhelming respon- 
sibility, which he can never part with or transfer to 
another while he holds the relation of parent. But the 
teacher is responsible in a very high degree. An important 
interest is committed to his charge whenever a human 
being is placed under his guidance. 

6. The teacher is in a degree responsible for the bodily 
health of the child. The foundation of many serious dis- 
eases is laid in the school-room. These diseases come 
sometimes from a neglect of exercise; sometimes from too 
long confinement in one position; sometimes from over- 
excitement and over-study, etc. Now, the teacher should 
be an intelligent physiologist. He is bound to bo ever- 
watchful to guard against all those abuses from which our 
children so often suffer. 

7. The teacher is mainly responsible for the intellect- 
ual STovvth of the child. There is a natural order in the 
education of the child. If the teacher presents the sub- 
jects out of this order, he is responsible for the injury. 
Those simple branches which the child first comprehends, 
should first be presented. 

8. The subject of reading should be one of the first. 
And the day is now at hand when an enlightened com- 
munity will not condemn the teachei', if, while teaching 
reading, he should call the child's attention by oral instruc- 
tions to such objects about him as he can comprehend. 

9. Mental Arithmetic is a study which I would recom- 
mend. The idea of Number is one of the earliest in the 
mind of the child. He can be early taught to count, and 
quite early to perform those operations which we call 
adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing. 

10. Geography may come next to Mental Arithmetic. 



16 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

The child should have an idea of the relations of size, 
form, and space, as well as number, before commencing 
Geography. A map is a picture, and hence a child wel- 
comes it. If it can be a map of some familiar object, as 
of his school-room, of his father's orchard or farm, it 
becomes an object of great interest. 

11. History should go hand in hand with Geography. 
No greater mistake is made than that of deferring History 
till one of the last things in the child's course. 

12. The subject of writing may be early commenced 
with the pencil upon the slate, because it is a very useful 
exercise to the child in prosecuting many of his other 
studies. 

13. Writing with a pen may well be deferred till the 
child is ten years of age, when the muscles shall have 
acquired sufficient strength to grasp and guide it. 

14. Written Arithmetic may succeed the Mental; in- 
deed, it may be practiced along with it. 

15. Composition should be early commenced and very 
frequently practiced. The child can be early interested 
in this, and he probably in this Avay acquires a better 
knowledge of practical grammar than in any other. 

16. Believing as some others do. Grammar, I think, as 
a study, should be one of the last of the common school 
branches to be taken up. It requires more maturity of 
mind to understand its relations and dependencies than any 
other; and that which is taught of grammar without such 
an understanding, is a mere smattering of technical 
terms. 

17. It is of quite as much importance hotc we study, as 
what we study. I believe that much of the difference 
among men can be traced to their different habits of study, 
formed in youth. A large portion of our scholars study 
for the sake of preparing to recite the lesson. They seem 
to have no idea of any object beyond recitation. The con- 
sequence is, they study mecbaDically. They endeavor to 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ANSWERS. 17 

remember phraseology rather than principles; they study 
the hook^ not the subject. 

18. There is much for the teacher to do toward the 
growth of the mind, which is not to be found in the school- 
books; and it is the practical recognition of this fact which 
constitutes the great difference in teachers. Truths in 
whatever department, is open to the faithful teacher. And 
there is such a thing, even in the present generation, as 
"opening the eyes of the blind," to discover things new 
and old, in nature, in the arts, in history, in the relation of 
things. 

19. Yes, he should be well versed in human nature. He 
should know the power of conscience and the means of 
reaching it. His example in everything before his school, 
should be pure, flowing out from the purity of his soul. 
He should ever manifest the tenderest regard to the law 
of right and of love. He should never violate his own 
sense of justice, nor outrage that of his pupils. 

20. The school-room is no place for a man without 
principle. Let such a man seek a livelihood anywhere 
else; or, failing to gain it by other means, let starvation 
seize the body, and send the soul back to its Maker as it 
is, rather than he should incur the fearful guilt of poison- 
ing youthful minds and dragging them" down to his own 
pitiable level. If there can be one sin greater than 
another on which heaven frowns with more awful dis- 
pleasure, it is that of leading the young into principles of 
error and the debasing practices of vice. 

21. The teacher is to some extent responsible for the 
religious training of the young. When I say religious 
training, I do not mean sectarianism. In our public 
schools, supported at the public expense, and in which the 
children of all denominations meet for instruction, I do 
not think that any man has a right to crowd his own 
peculiar notions of theology upon all, whether they are 
acceptable or not. 



18 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

22. Yes. He can teach a reverence for the Supreme 
Being, a reverence for His Holy Word, for the influences 
of His Spirit, for the character and teachings of the Savior, 
and for the momentous concerns of eternity. He can teach 
the evil of sin in the sight ot God, and the awful conse- 
quences of it upon the individual. He can teach the duty 
of repentance, and the privilege of forgiveness. He can 
teach our duty to worship God, to obey His laws, to seek 
the guidance of His spirit, and the salvation by His Son. 
He can illustrate the blessedness of the divine life, the 
beauty of holiness, and the joyful hope of heaven; — and 
to all this no reasonable man will be found to object, so 
long as it is done in a truly Christian spirit. 

23. The influence of the teacher is so great upon the 
children under his care, either for good or evil, that it is of 
the utmost importance to them as well as to himself that 
his habits should be unexceptionable. 

24. It is the teacher's sphere to improve the commu- 
nity in which he moves, not only in learning, but in morals 
and manners; in every thing that is lovely and of good 
report. This he may do partly by precept, — but very 
much by example. He teaches^, wherever he is. His man- 
ners, his appearance, his character, are all the subject of 
observation, and to a great extent of imitation, by the 
young in his district. 

25. The neatness and cleanliness of his person should 
be strictly attended to. The morning ablution should 
never be omitted, and the comb for the hair and brush 
for the clothes should always be called into requisition 
before he presents himself to the family, or to his school. 
Every teacher would very much promote his own health 
by washing the whole surface of the body every morning 
in cold water. \Vhen physiology is better understood, 
this practice will be far more general. To no class of 
persons is it more §S6§pti3.1 than to the teacher, on account 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ANSWERS. 19 

of his close confinement in the school-room. His only 
safety is in a healthy action of the skin. 

26. Without doubt, the teeth should be carefully at- 
tended to. A brush and clean water have saved many a 
set of teeth. It is bad enough to witness the deplorable 
neglect of these important organs so prevalent in the com- 
munity; but it is extremely mortifying to see a filthy set 
of teeth in the mouth of the teacher of our youth. 

27. The "nails are often neglected by some of our 
teachers, till their ebony tips are anything but ornamental. 
The matter is made worse, when, in the presence of the 
family or of the school, the penknife is brought into 
requisition to remove that which should have received 
attention at the time of washing in the morning. The 
teacher should remember that it is a vulgar habit to pare 
or clean the nails while in the presence of others, and 
especially during conversation with them, 

28. The teacher should be neat in his dress. He need 
not dress expensively, for in most cases his income will 
not admit of this. His clothing should be in good taste, 
and always clean. A slovenly dress, covered with dust, or 
spotted with grease, is never so much out of its proper 
place, as when it clothes the teacher. 

29. It is somewhat strange to me why any man but a 
Turk, who may lawfully dream away half his existence 
over the fumes of this filthy narcotic, should ever use 
tobacco. Even if there were nothing wrong in the use of 
unnatural stimulants themselves, the filthiness of tobacco 
is enough to condemn it among teachers, especially in the 
form of chewing. It is certainly worth while to ask 
whether there is not some moral delinquency in teaching 
this practice to the young, while it is admitted by nearly 
all who have fallen into the habit, to be an evil, and one 
from which they would desire to be delivered. 

30. Yes. He should practice order in his room at his 
boarding-house. Every thing should have its place. His 



20 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

books and his clothing should all be arranged with regard 
to this principle, and to the school-room should this same 
habit go with him. Practicing order himself, he may with 
propriety insist upon it in his pupils. 

31. The teacher should ever be courteous, both in his 
language and in his manners. His language should be 
pxire and accurate. Pure as distinguished from all those 
cant phrases and provincialisms which amuse the vulgar in 
certain localities; and accurate as to the terras used to 
express his meaning. A courtesy of manner should also 
characterize the teacher. It maybe termed true politeness. 
This is founded in benevolence. It is the exercise of real 
kindness. It entertains a just regard for the feelings of 
others, and seeks to do for them what would make them 
really happy. 

32. The teacher should be punctual in everything. He 
should always be present at or before the time for open- 
ing his school, and should be punctual in dismissing his 
school at the proper time. At all engagements he should 
be punctual; and studiously so in all the detail of school 
exercises; he should be so at his meals, at his private 
studies, at his hour of retiring at night and of I'isinginthe 
morning, and also at his exercise and recreation. 

83. The teacher should take care to furnish his own 
mind, or he will soon find his present stock of knowledge, 
however liberal that may be, fading from his memory and 
becoming unavailable. To prevent this, and to keep along 
with every improvement, he should regularly pursue a 
course of study. By strict system in all his arrangements, 
he may find time to do so. 

84. Orthography implies something more than mere 
spelling. Spelling is certainly indispensable. No person 
should ever think of teaching, who is not an accurate 
speller. But the nature and /cowers of letters should also 
be mastered. We have in our language about forty ele- 
mentary sounds; yet we have but twenty-six characters to 



'rHEOHY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ANSWERS. 21 

represent them. Our alphabet is therefore imperfect. It 
were much to be desired that we might have a jicrfect 
alphabet, that is, as many characters as we have elementary 
soimds, and that each letter should have but one sound. 
For the present this can not be; and the present genera- 
tion of teachers, at least, will have to teach our present 
orthography. 

35. Every teacher should be a good reader; but, I am 
sorry to say that, in my estimation, not more than ten in 
every thousand can now be called a good reader. To be 
able to read well, implies a quick perception of the mean- 
ing as well as a proper enunciation of the words. It is a 
branch but poorly taught in most of our schools. Many 
of the older pupils get above reading before they have 
learned to read well; and, unfortunately, many of our 
teachers can not awaken an interest in the subject, because 
very likely they can not read any better than their scholars. 

36. A teacher should thoroughly master the principles 
of writing, before attempting to teach this branch with 
much hope of success. It is not respectable for the teacher 
of the young to be a bad writer; nor can it ever become 
so, even should the majority of bad writers continue to 
increase. The teacher should take great pains to write a 
plain, legible hand. This is an essential qualification. 

37. That the teacher should have a knowledge of the 
principles of Geography is essential. This implies an 
acquaintance with the use of globes, and the art of map- 
drawing. He should be so well versed in geography, that 
with an outline map of any country before him, he could 
give an intelligent account of its surface, people, resources, 
history, etc.; and if the outline map were not at hand, he 
ought to be able to draw one from memory — at least, of 
each of the grand divisions of the earth, and of the United 
States. 

38. Yes. The teacher should have a fair knowledge of 
the history of foreign countries, as well as a good knowl- 



22 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

edge of the history of the United States. He can hardly 
teach geography successfully without a competent knowl- 
edge of both ancient and modern history. It should, in 
the main, be taught in our common Schools in connection 
with geography. 

39. Every teacher should be thoroughly versed in some 
good work on Mental Arithmetic. Prof. Davies' Intellect- 
ual Arithmetic is probably the best that has been prepared. 
It is not enough that the teacher is able in some way to 
ohtain the answers to the questions proposed. He should 
be able to give, in a clear and concise manner, the reason 
for every step in the process he takes to obtain them. It 
is this which constitutes the value of this branch as a dis- 
cipline for the mind. 

40. Everybody demands Written Arithmetic of the 
teacher; and he is scarcely in danger of being without 
fair pretensions in this branch. He should, however, know 
it by its principles, rather than by its rules and facts. He 
should so understand it, that if every arithmetic in the 
world should be burned, he could still make another, con- 
structing its rules and explaining their principles. He 
should understand arithmetic so well, that he could teach 
it thoroughly, though all text-books should be excluded 
from his school-room. 

41. Quite rare indeed it is that, a teacher is found 
without some pretensions to English Grammar; yet it is 
deplorable to observe how very few have any liberal or 
philosophical acquaintance with it. The teacher studies 
owe book, and too often takes that as his creed. In no 
science is it more necessary to be acquainted with several 
authors. The person who has studied but one text-book 
on grammar, even if that be the best one extant, is but 
poorly qualified to teach this branch. There is a philoso- 
phy of language which the teacher should carefully study, 
and if within his power, he should have some acquaint- 
ance with the peculiar structure of other languages 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ANSWERS. 23 

besides his own. He should spare no pains to master this 
subject. 

42. Algebra is now required to be taught in many of 
our schools, and the teacher should have a thorough 
acquaintance with it. The subject so much improves the 
mind of the teacher that he will be still better qualified to 
teach simple Arithmetic by knowing the principles of Alge- 
bra. I consider an acquaintance with it indispensable to 
the thorough teacher, even of the common school. 

43. Nearly the same may be said of this branch that 
has been said of Algebra. There is, perhaps, no branch of 
study which disciplines the mind more effectually than 
the study of Geometry. By pursuing it the teacher will 
be able to teach other things the better for having had 
this discipline, to say nothing of the advantage which 
a knowledge of the principles of Geometry will give 
him, in understanding and explaining the branches of 
mathematics. 

44. In many of our schools these branches are required 
to be taught. They are important branches in them- 
selves, and they also afford good exercise for the mind in 
their acquisition. The young teacher, especially the male 
teacher, should make the acquirement. 

45. Natural Philosophy is not taught in most of our 
district schools. The teacher, however, should imder- 
stand it better than it is presented in many of the simple 
text-books on this subject. Ha should have studied the 
philosophy of its principles, and be fully acquainted with 
their demonstration. If possible, he should have had an 
opportunity also of seeing the principles illustrated by 
experiment. 

46. As a matter of intelligence, the teacher should have 
an acquaintance with Chemistry. It is comparatively a 
new science, but it is almost a science of miracles. It is 
beginning to be taught in our common schools; and that 
department of it which relates to agriculture, is destined 



24 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

to be of vast importance to the agricultural interests of 
our country, 

47. The teacher should well understand Human Phys- 
iology. There is an unpardonable ignorance in the com- 
munity as to the structure of the human body, and the 
laws of health, the observance of which is, in general, a 
condition of longevity, not to say of exemption from dis- 
ease. There is but little doubt that Aa//the evils of life, 
and half the deaths that occur among mankind, arise from 
ignorance of these natural laws; and that a thorough 
knowledge of them would diminish the sufferings incident 
to our present state of being in very nearly the same pro- 
portion. 

48. Intellectual Philosophy is necessary for the teacher. 
His business is with the mind. He, of all men, should 
know something of its laws and its nature. He can know 
something, indeed, by observation and introspection; but 
he should also learn by careful study. His own improve- 
ment demands it, and his usefulness depends upon it. A 
knowledge of Moral Philosophy may be insisted on for 
the same reasons which apply to Intellectual Philosophy. 
It is so important that the moral nature of the child be 
rightly dealt with, that he is a presumptuous man who 
attempts the work without the most careful attention to 
this subject. 

49. Rhetoric and Logic are of great service to the 
teacher personally, as means of mental discipline and the 
cultivation of his own taste. Even if he is never to teach 
these subjects, they will afford him much assistance in 
other departments of instruction. He certainly should 
have the advantage of them. 

50. Yes. Every teacher should know something of 
Book-keeping, at least by single entry; and also be con- 
versant with the ordinary forms of business. It should 
be a common school study. The teacher should qualify 
himself not only to understand this subject, but to teach 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ANSWERS. 25 

it in such a way that it can be easily comprehended by the 
classes in our common schools. 

51. They are not. The profound ignorance among 
teachers on the subject of Book-keeping, is truly astonish- 
ing. The following anecdote is worthy of mention, show- 
ing the extreme want of the most simple rules of Book- 
keeping: A teacher who had kept a private school, was 
met in a country store one day by one of his patrons, who 
paid him for the tuition of his child, asking at the same time 
for a receipt. The teacher stared vacantly at his patron. 
"Just give me a bit of paper," said the patron, " to show 
you've got the money." " Oh, yes, sir," said the teacher; 
and taking a pen and paper, wrote the following: "J^^ I 
have got the money. A B ." 

52. The teacher should, at least, be well acquainted 
with the history and genius of our own government, the 
Constitution of the United States, and of his own State. 
In a republican government, it is of great importance that 
the young, who are to take an active part in public meas- 
ures as soon as they arrive at the age of twenty-one, should 
before that time be made acquainted with some of their 
duties and relations as citizens. It is a disgrace to a 
teacher and to his profession, to be ignorant of the pro- 
visions of the Constitution for the mode of choosing our 
rulers. 

53. Most assuredly. The good teacher should under- 
stand the principles of Drawing. He should also be able 
to practice this art. It is of great consequence to him. 
Without neglect of other things, children can be very 
profitably taught this art in the common schools. In the 
absence of apparatus, it is the teacher's only way of 
addressing the eye of his pupils, in illustrating his teach- 
ing. Every teacher should take pains, not only to draw, 
but to draw well. 

64. Vocal Music is not absolutely essential, though it 
is very desirable, to the good teacher, that he should 



^6 THE EXAMINER^S COMPANION. 

understand it theoretically and practically. Music is 
already an exercise in many of our best schools; and 
wherever introduced and judiciously conducted, it is 
attended with pleasing results. It promotes good reading 
and speaking by disciplining the ear to distinguish sounds; 
and it also facilitates the cultivation of the finer feelings 
of our nature. Martin Luther said: "The school-master 
who can not sing, I would not look upon." This language 
is, perhaps, too strong; but it is usually more pleasant to 
look upon a school where the school-master can sing. 

55. The size of a school-house should mainly depend 
upon the number of pupils it is intended to accommodate. 
A house designed for an ungraded school, to be taught by 
a single teacher, should not contain less than nine hundred 
square feet. A house built to accommodate fifty to eighty 
pupils, and provide them with a recitation room, should 
contain not less than fifteen hundred square feet; and 
one to accommodate from eighty to one hundred and twenty 
pupils, with two recitation rooms, should have an area 
of something like two thousand square feet. 

56. The best form for school-houses in rural districts 
is rectangular, the door entering at the south end, and the 
north end being without windows. The ceiling must be 
from twelve to sixteen feet high, as it will add to the 
beauty of the room and to the health and comfort of its 
occupants. 

5*7. The common mode in which our school-houses are 
heated is very objectionable. If a stove must be placed 
in the room, it should be surrounded with a tin casing 
made to extend from the floor to about one foot above the 
top of the stove. There should.be a door in the casing 
for putting in fuel; and a trunk for the conveyance of 
fresh air should start outside of the building, run under 
the floor, and communicate directly with the stove. 

58. To ventilate a school-room all the windows should 
be hung with pulleys, in order that they may be easily 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHIiSTG ANSWERS. . 27 

raised or lowered. If windows and doors are skillfully 
used, a tolerably good degree of ventilation can be 
secured. 

59. School records are of use in aiding the teacher in 
his work; to give information to parents and school offi- 
cers; to furnish educational statistics; and to exert a ben- 
eficial influence upon the pupils. 

60. School organization is a. system of arrangement 
designed to secure constant employment, efficient instruc- 
tion and moral control. It aims at providing the means 
of instructing and educating the greatest number in the 
most efficient manner, and by the most economical expen- 
diture of time and money. 

61. Such visits will convince the people that the teacher 
takes an interest in his work and desires to do it well. 
The teacher will be able to ascertain how many children 
from each family will be likely to attend school, what 
their ages and advancements are, and what books they 
have studied. From the children the teacher can learn 
who were in the several classes, how many classes there 
were in the school, how the school was organized, and 
many other matters of detail that will assist him in mak- 
ing up a complete schedule of classes and studies, ready 
for use on the opening day. 

62. On the first day of school the principal business of 
the teacher is to win the respect of the pupils, and to 
establish confidence between them and himself. 

63. The teacher should furnish something interesting 
for every pupil to do, from the commencement, all day 
long. He should forestall disorder by establishing order 
at every moment. He, in my estimation, can more readily 
interest the younger classes by engaging with the older 
classes first, than by pursuing the opposite course. 

64. Yes. School officers should be present and intro- 
duce the teacher on the first day of school. This gives 



28 THE examiner's companion. 

appearance of moral support to the teacher, and produces 
salutary effect upon pupils. 

65. By all means the teacher should make an appro- 
priate opening address to his pupils on the fii'st day of 
school. He should quite fully explain his relations to 
them, and theirs to him, and do his utmost to make the 
first impressions pleasant. 

66. The teacher should open his school every morning 
with some appropriate and pleasing general exercise. This 
exercise may be a familiar song; some vocal exercise, or a 
responsive reading of the Scriptures. 

67. Some of the advantages of a program in school 
are: (l) It lessens the labor of teaching, and makes the 
task more effective. (2) It promotes good order, and cul- 
tivates systematic habits. (3) It promotes the ambition 
of pupils. 

68. The chief incentives to study, about the use of 
which a difference of opinion exists, are — prizes, merit- 
marks, emulation, fear of punishment, shame, and ridicule. 

69. (1) The approbation of the teacher, along with the 
approbation of the parents and friends of the pupil. (2) 
The approbation of society, and the attainment of an 
honorable position in the school. (3) The pleasure of 
overcoming difficulties; the gratification of curiosity; and 
the desire of knowledge. (4) The hope of success in 
life; the enjoyment of pure ideal creations; and the duty 
of self-perfection. (5) The satisfaction of doing right; 
and the prospect of heavenly reward. 

YO. Some of the objects of education are: (1) The 
development of the faculties. (2) The acquisition of 
knowledge. (3) Its wise application to the uses of life. 

71. Some of the objects of a recitation are: (!) To 
cultivate the power of concise and ready expression. (2) 
To determine the extent and accuracy of the learner's 
attainments. (3) To increase the attainments of the class, 
to add to the knowledge that its members have acquired 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ANSWERS. 29 

in their study hours. (4) To determine the pupils' habits 
and methods of study, and to correct whatever is faulty 
either in manner or matter. 

12. Some of the moral objects of a recitation are to 
cultivate sentiments of justice, kindness, forbearance, and 
courtesy. 

73. The teacher should make, at least, a general prep- 
aration for a recitation — a special one, if possible. He 
should have a fair knowledge of mental and moral philos- 
ophy, an abstract of each day's work, and should know 
how to " use" books, but not abuse them. 

74. School government is the proper ordering of both 
the organic and individual action in the schools, so as to 
secure in pupils the best possible development of the mind 
and discipline of the heart. 

15. Some of the most important qualifications of the 
teacher to be considered are, first, a very essential one — 
Common sense; second, A knowledge of the branches 
taught; third. Teaching power; fourth. Governing power; 
fifth, Love of the work. 

16. The term " discipline " is often taken in a broad 
sense, including all the appliances, studies, and exercises 
of the student's life. In its more contracted sense, it is 
applied to the correction of particular errors and faults. 

11. Education is that which embraces the culture of the 
whole man, with all his faculties — s.ubjecting his senses, 
his undei'standing, and his passions to reason, to conscience, 
and to the evangelical laws of the Christian revelation. 
Physical education includes all that relates to the organs 
of sensation and the muscular and nervous system. 

78. Intellectual education develops and improves the 
powers of the understanding. Moral education compre- 
hends the various modes of cultivating and regulating the 
affections, and forming right ideas, as to the relation of 
man to man. 

79. The faculties of the mind are comprised in three 



30 THE examiner's COMPANIONc 

general divisions, viz.: the intellect, the sensibility, and the 
will. 

80. Education makes men more industrious; more 
trustworthy; more active and systematic; more cheerful; 
more far-sighted; more economical, as producers and pre- 
servers of property. 

81. Education tends to make a people more orderly, 
and to substitute reflection for passion; to predispose them 
to respect lawful authority; to render political revolutions 
gradual and bloodless; to qualify men for the exercise of 
more and more political power; and to make refinement 
and civilization universal. 

82. Some of the most common evils of our schools are 
as follows: A want of interest on the part of parents and 
others; too frequent change of teachers; the excessive mul- 
tiplication of school districts; a diversity of class-books; 
teachers not qualified; and defective supervision. 

83. Pupils should be required to stand up to read or to 
answer questions. Common politeness would require this. 
The change from the sitting posture will be of great phys- 
ical advantage to the pupils. The vocal organs have 
freer play when the pupil is standing than while sitting. 
Standing up should be done promptly. The pupil should 
not roll up or r/rowj up. 

84. No pupil should be allowed to leave his seat without 
permission. If one has this privilege all must be allowed 
to do so, and all might choose to do so at the same time. 
Monitors may have a standing permission to attend to 
their duties without referring to their teachers every day, 

85. No. It is a mistake to omit yard supervision over 
l)Upils. If not controlled in the yard, they are not easily 
managed in the school-room. If children learn evil habits 
or hear impure or profane language at school, they do so 
chiefly during the recesses. The presence of the teacher 
in the play ground should restrain what is wrong, without 
in any way checking the interest in healtUful sports and 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ANSWERS. 31 

innocent recreation. Rough games which interfere with 
the comfort of those not engaged in them, or endanger 
the limbs of those who are playing, would not be indulged 
in under the eye of the teacher. 

86. Whispering during study hours is an unmitigated 
evil, and those who permit it make a grievous error. 
There are some who, seeking for a justification of what 
they are too weak or too indolent to prohibit, defend whis- 
pering on the plea that " pupils should be allowed to assist 
each other in their work." This plea is fallacious for tvio 
reasons — 1. Whispering can not be restricted to the limit 
named. 2. Children can not teach each other. 

87. Most assuredly. Pupils should not be allowed 
even to remain in the school-room during recess, unless the 
weather is unfavorable. Old and young, male and female, 
should take the opportunity of breathing the fresh air, 
due precaution as to clothing, etc., being taken when the 
weather is cold. During cold weather, those who have 
any chest affliction may be permitted to remain in and 
rest, but they should not be allowed to move around the 
room, unless they do so in a systematic and orderly man- 
ner as directed by the teacher. 

88. It is not best to do so. If the teacher gets angry, 
too, the pupils witness an unseemly quarrel; if he does not, 
some of his class will think he is afraid. In either case the 
work of the school is interrupted, and the respect of the 
pupils for the authority of the teacher is lessened. They can 
not regard his power as very great, if a parent may come 
and question it in an offensive and contemptuous man- 
ner. 

89. The teacher should receive the parent courteously 
at the -door, give his class some work to occupy it for a 
fe'w minutes, and step outside to make the necessary expla- 
nation. If the parent is exceedingly unreasonable, the 
teacher should quietly inform him that his time must nov; 
be devoted to his class, but that if the parent will call again 



32 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

after school, or receive a call from him, he will be able to 
give the matter further consideration. 

90. No greater mistake can be made than to suppose that 
children desire to have their own way at school. Children 
like order better than disorder. So would all grown people, 
if they had been properly trained at school. Children are 
most joyous and happy, and therefore most thoroughly edu- 
cated, in those schools where the discipline is strict without 
being severe. There is no quicker way for a teacher to 
lose the respect of his pupils than by over-indulging them. 

91 . I would not do so. Some teachers strike the desk; 
stamp on the floor; call "order, order, order"; or ring the 
bell to cause quietness. A thunder-clap startles us into 
stillness for a few moments, but even thunder would soon 
lose its effect, if controlled by some teachers. Disorderly 
pupils should be subdued, not terrified. It would be a poor 
way to calm a nervous child by firing a cannon near it. A 
teacher must be deliberate, not impulsive and explosive. 
If he wishes to secure good order, he must be orderly 
himself. Attention gained by making any sudden noise is 
only of a temporary kind. The noise of the pupils yields 
for a time, but very soon re-asserts itself. 

92. It is a mistake to make too many rules in school. 
There are teachers who make so many rules, that they 
can not remember them themselves. Their pupils forget 
them too, and violate them without intending any wrong. 
The breaking of the law should be a most serious offence. 
Children will not be very good citizens, if they regard the 
violation of laws as a trifling matter. They cannot avoid 
coming to this conclusion, if a teacher has so many rules 
that he forgets to punish for neglecting them; or if they 
are of so unimportant a character, as not to command the 
respect of the pupils. 

93. No. The bell is purely a time or tnovement signal. 
Even the occasional ringing of the bell for order is a mis- 
take. It disturbs every pupil, while perhaps only two or 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ANSWERS. 66 

three are offending, and after a time loses its effect, because 
it speaks directly to no one, and gives in general terms to a 
whole class what should be given particularly to certain 
individuals. The bell is a valuable aid in securing dis- 
cipline. It may be used Avith great profit instead of the 
teacher's voice, as a signal for commencing, changing, or 
closing exercises; or for standing up, sitting down, assem- 
bling, dismissing, etc., but it never should be used to give 
a direct command for order. 

94. He certainly should. A man opens the gates of his 
stronghold when he becomes angry. To exercise control 
a teacher must be calm and patient. The quality of "will 
power" is of great importance, the quantity of it at a 
teacher's disposal is of far more consequence. It must wear 
well. There is a dignity and a majesty in the patient asser- 
tion of the right and the ability to control, which never fails 
to command respect. It is well, especially when taking 
charge of a new class, not to try to compel absokite order 
too suddenly. So long as pupils are ready to do what the 
teacher wishes, he will, if a reasonable man, overlook 
slight offences until good conduct has become a habit. 

95. Whipping should be used as a reformatory agent 
only. It is better for boys than confinement in jail. It should 
rarely, if ever, be administered to girls. The teacher who 
resorts to frequent whipping as a means of securing dis- 
cipline, is either excessively lazy or weak. He can have 
very little tact or will power. A city superintendent says, 
" I find that the good order of the classes varies with the 
amount of whipping done, in inverse ratio. Much whipping, 
bad order; little whipping, better order; least whipping, 
best order." This will be found to be the experience of 
all who have given the question a fair trial. There are some 
who have relied solely on whipping for many yeai's, and 
who have, therefore, no other means of control but the 
cane. They and their pupils are to be pitied. They were 
never qualified to perform the high duties of teachers. 

3 



34 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

96. No pupil should ever know who is likely to receive 
a question until it has been given. No name should be 
mentioned, no motion made or look given to indicate who 
is to answer, until the question has been asked. Many 
teachers, while proposing a question, make the mistake of 
looking steadily at the pupil whom they expect to answer 
it. This should be so carefully avoided as to leave every 
pupil completely in the dark as to the intentions of the 
teacher. Each pupil should know that he may be asked 
to answer every question. Every one will thus be com- 
pelled to attend all the time; while if questions are asked 
in rotation, a pupil, after answering his question, may dis- 
cuss the circus, or the last lacrosse match, or the next base- 
ball match, or any other cqypropriate topic that may chance 
to come into his mind, until his turn is coming again. 

97. It is well to do so. The teacher should understand 
principles, not certain statements, or rules, or examples. 
The teacher who merely hears recitations of words pre- 
pared in a text-book has a poor estimate of his true func- 
tion. The pupils should do considerable independent 
work in the study of their textbooks, but the teacher 
should test the results of their study by requiring them to 
make a practicul use of it. He should not be satisfied with 
knowing that they can use it vntJi their tongues only. . The 
text-book can never be a substitute for the teacher. 

98. No. Some teachers are very fond of " airing their 
knowledge of the lesson." If a ti^'dcher talks a great deal 
he is either too diffuse in the treatment of his subject, or 
he offers his pupils more thought than they can projDerly 
digest. It is not possible for a class to attend hour after 
hour and day after day, to a teacher who gives them no 
share in the work of learning but as listeners. He is the 
best teacher who can stimulate his pupils with fewest 
words to greatest mental activity and interest in their les- 
sons. Most of the talking should be done by the pupils 
as guided or led by the teacher. If the teacher talks too 



THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING ANSWERS. 35 

much he wearies himself as well as his class. Let the 
talking be reduced to the minimum, and the working 
increased to the maximum extent possible. 

99. A mistake is made by using too many long words 
in teaching. Great thoughts are best expressed in simple 
language. Those who teach children must use plain, 
familiar words or they will be misunderstood. All teach- 
ers are liable to forget the change that has taken place in 
their own mental development since they were children. 
The minds of pupils are frequently confused because their 
teachers take it for granted that they understand the mean- 
ing of words with whose use they are unacquainted. The 
teacher should be as correct a model as possible in his 
language. It should be simple, carefully chosen, appro- 
priate, and accurate as regards pronunciation and gram- 
matical construction. 

100. No teacher can succeed without the sympathy of 
his class. To secure this the teacher must be ever genial 
and cheerful, as well as straiyhtforward. The sunshine 
of a teacher's face, and the "song-shine" of his tone and 
words, can penetrate the darkest recesses of a child's nature, 
and they often develop germs of power and beauty of 
character which would have died for lack of nourishment 
or grown to be but sickly plants in the darkness. The 
winds of censure, scolding and grumbling, and the barren 
hills of formality and indifference, only serve to make the 
timid nature of the child shrink and hide. Kindness in 
word and manner, a genuine interest in the thoug]its, feel- 
ings and circumstances of a child, and the warmth of an 
affectionate nature, will bring out the tender buds of 
sweetness of temper and purity of heart, and make them 
grow into the most beautiful flowers of a noble character. 
A genial manner will enable the teacher to deal with the 
thousand petty annoyances of the school-room, without 
allowing them to develop into great difficulties. 



PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 




QUESTIONS. 



1. What is parliamentary law? 

2. Why is it so called? 

3. Why do the general rules of parliamentary law 
apply in all deliberative assemblies? 

4. What is a deliberative assembly? 

5. What officers are necessary to properly organize a 
deliberative assembly? 

6. What is a quorum? 

7. What is said regarding the number constituting a 
quorum ? 

8. Has more than one member aright to present prop- 
ositions for the action of the assembly? 

9. How is business generally introduced? What is 
a motion? 

10. Propositions offered by members, except mere 
motions in the progress of proceeding, should be reduced 
to what? 

11. Subjects for action inay be how set in motion? 

12. What is the technical difference between a memo- 
rial and a petition? 

(36) 



PARLIAMENTARY RULES QUESTIONS. 37 

13. How should a petition be presented? 

14. How can a proposition or question be acted upon? 

15. What must a member first do, before he is entitled 
to make a motion or present a proposition? 

16. When is a motion before the assembly for consid- 
eration ? 

17. After a vote has been taken on a question and the 
result declared by the presiding officer it becomes what? 

18. If any member doubts the result of the vote by 
dividing the house, what may he do? 

19. What is there presumed to be always pending? 

20. Motions or questions aside from the principal 
motion in a deliberative assembly are called what? 

21. What is a j)rincipal motion? 

22. What are subsidiary questions or motions? 

23. What are privileged questions or motions? 

24. What are incidental questions? 

25. Mention some of the general rules in regard to 
motions, and manner of proceeding. 

26. What is said of subsidiary motions? 

27. What is said regarding the previous question? 

28. What is said 3^:)0\xt 2:>ostponementf 

29. State what is said of a motion to commit. 

30. What is said of amending a proposition? 

31. State what you can Sihowt filing blanks. 

32. What is said of striking out? 

33. What is said of an amendment by inserting? 

34. What is said of striking out and inserting? 

35. What can you say regarding the division of a 
proposition? 

36. What are privileged questions? 

37. State what is said of adjournment? 

38. What is said of questions of privilege? 

39. What is said of orders of the day? 

40. Taking up incidental questions, what is said of 
questions of order? 



38 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

41. What is said of reading jyapers? 

42. State what is said about the withdrawal of a 
motion? 

43. What is said of the suspension of a rxdef 

44. What is said of an amendinent to an amendment? 

45. What is said of reconsideration? 

46. Name the committees in deliberative assemblies. 

47. What is said of standing and select committees? 

48. State what you can regarding a committee of the 
whole. 

49. State what is said of appeals. 

50. State what is said of debate. 

51. What is said pertaining to the use of the gavelf 



^' PARLIAMENTARY RULES. 1| 



ANSWERS. 



1. Parliamentary law consists of rules which are recog- 
nized as governing proceedings in deliberative assemblies. 

2. It is so called from the rules of order existing from 
long established usage in the British parliament. 

3. It is by custom that the general rules of parliament- 
ary law apply in all deliberative assemblies without the 
necessity of being formally adopted. 

4. A deliberative assembly is a congregation of people 
or convention of persons for the consideration of matters 
in which all are concerned, or in which all have an equal 

voice. 

5. The officers necessary are a president or chairman, 
and secretary or clerk; other officers may be added as cir- 
cumstances may dictate. The chairman or president 
presides, and the secretary or clerk records the proceed- 
ings of the assembly. 

6. A quorum is a majority of the members of the 
assembly. The business of an assembly can not properly 
proceed unless a quorum is present. 

7. The number constituting a quorum may be other- 

• (39) 



40 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

wise fixed by the rules of the assembly. All questions 
are determined by a majority vote of the members pres- 
ent constituting a quorum. 

8. Yes. Every member of a deliberative assembly has 
the right to present propositions for the action of the 
assembly. 

9. Business is generally introduced by a motion. A 
motion is a verbal or oral proposition of a member. Prop- 
ositions may also be submitted by a committee, which is 
called their report. 

10. They should be reduced to writing, and may be 
required to be put in writing on demand of a member. A 
proposition when reduced to writing is generally in the 
form of a resolution, commencing with the word 
" Resolved." 

11. Subjects for action may be set in motion also by a 
communication to the assembly. Communications for this 
purpose are of two kinds: First, for information of the 
assembly in matters of fact, called a memorial; second, 
those which contain a request for some action on the part 
of the assembly, called a petition. 

12. The technical difference between a memorial and 
a petition is, that the former is a mere representation of 
existing facts, whilst the latter is a request that something 
be done. 

13. In presenting a petition the custom is for the 
member presenting it to state the substance of the same, 

describing it as the petition of , naming the person 

first signing it and the number of other signers, thus: 
" The petition of A. B. and one hundred other signers," or 
as the case may be. When a petition is presented the 
custom is to receive it as a matter of course, -without any 
formal motion to that effect. 

14. In general no proposition or question can be acted 
upon except on motion or at the instance of a member. 
In case of a resolution offered by a member or report 



PAELIAMENTARY RULES ANSWERS. 41 

from a committee, the question recurs upon concurring in 
the same, without the necessity of a formal motion to that 
effect. The offering of a resolution by a member or sub- 
mitting a report by a committee carries with it or implies 
a motion that the same be adopted or concurred in. 

15. No member is entitled to make a motion or pre- 
sent a proposition until he has obtained the floor for that 
purpose. The manner of obtaining the floor is for a mera^ 
ber to rise in his place and address the presiding ofiicer 
by his title; on being recognized he has obtained the floor 
and is entitled to proceed. 

16. A motion is not before the assembly for considera- 
tion until stated by the presiding officer. Where a motion 
or proposition is in writing it is not properly before the 
assembly until it has been read. When a proposition is 
offered or a motion is made and seconded it becomes the 
property of the assembly, and can not be withdrawn or 
modified by the mover except by leave of the assembly on 
motion or by general consent. The presiding officer 
should rise to put motions or state questions for consider- 
ation. 

17. It becomes final, subject to re-consideration in cer- 
tain cases. If any member doubts the result of the vote 
when taken viva voce, before the result is declared he may 
call for a division of the house. A division of the house 
on any question, is by those in the affirmative rising and 
being counted, then by those in the negative rising and 
being counted. 

18. He may call for tellers to ascertain and report the 
vote taken by them. In appointing tellers it is customary 
to appoint one person from the affirmative, and another 
person from the negative side of the question. When a 
division of the house is desired or tellers are demanded, it 
must be called for before the result has been finally 
declared by the presiding officer. 

19. There is presumed to be always pending a princi- 



42 THE EXAMIJ^Er's companion. 

pal motion or main question. When a proposition is made 
it is usually called a motion,' when it is stated to the as- 
sembly by the presiding officer for consideration it is 
called a question, and if adopted it becomes the order, 
resolution or vote of the assembly. 

20. They are as follows: 1. Subsidiary motions. 2. 
Privileged questions. 3. Incidental questions or motions. 
Fi7'st: Subsidiary motions in common use are, 1. To lie on 
the table. 2. The previous question. 3. Postponement, 
either indefinite or to a time certain. 4, Commitment. 
5. Amendment. Second: Privileged questions or motions 
are, 1. Motions to adjourn. 2. Motions or questions relat- 
ing to rights and privileges of the assembly or to its 
members individually. 3. Motions for the orders of the 
day. Third: Incidental questioTis are, 1. Questions of 
order. 2. Motions for the reading of papers, etc. 3. 
Leave to withdraw a motion. 4. Suspension of a rule. 
5. Amendment of an amendment. 

21. A principal motion is a proposition embracing 
some principle or asserting some fact brought before the 
assembly for consideration. 

22. Subsidiary questions or motions are those which re- 
late to a principal motion and are made use of to enable 
the assembly to dispose of the main or principal question 
in a particular way, as indicated by this class of questions. 
Subsidiary questions, unlike privileged and incidental 
questions, can only be pending or moved when there is a 
principal question pending to which they may be applied. 
Subsidiary questions are dilatory in their nature, as they 
are intended, in the absence of special rules to the con- 
trary, to interrupt or prevent a direct vote on the main 
question, and dispose of it in some other manner. 

23. Privileged questions or motions are in general inde- 
pendent questions, having no reference to the main ques- 
tion, but which may be pending while the main proposi- 
tion and subsidiary motions thereto are pending. 



PARLIAMENTARY RULES — ANSWERS. 43 

24. Incidental questions are in general such as arise 
out of other questions, and are to be decided before those 
which give rise to them. 

25. 1. A motion is simply a proposition of a member 
as his individual sentiments, which he desires the assem- 
bly to adopt. 2, Where a proposition offered is adopted, 
it becomes the conclusion or sense of the assembly. 3. A 
proposition by a single member is not considered as suffi- 
cient to claim attention; it is therefore required that it 
should be approved or seconded by one other member. 
4. When a motion is seconded, the mover is entitled to 
have it put or disposed of by the assembly. 5. The mode 
of seconding a motion is by some member other than the 
one who offers it, announcing his approval of the same by 
saying that he seconds the motion. 6. All motions are 
presumed to be seconded, unless the point is made and 
the contraiy is shown. 7. In good practice a presiding 
officer does not pause to inquire if a motion is seconded; 
he will presume that it is seconded and proceed to put the 
motion, unless the contrary is made to appear. 8. It is 
not in order for a member when he obtains the floor and 
makes a principal motion, to follow it up at the same time 
with a subsidiary or other motion relating to it, as a 
motion that it lie on the table. 9. Where it is desired to 
delay or postpone a proposition for further information or 
reflection and examination, the usual motions under such 
circumstances are postponement to some future day or time, 
and to lie on the table. 10. Where it is desired to sup- 
press a proposition for a time, or altogether, the motions 
for this purpose are the jyrevious question and indefinite 
2)ostpo7ie7nent. 11. Where it is desired to inquire into or 
perfect a proposition, the proper course is to refer it to a 
committee, called a motion to commit. 12. Where the 
general features of a proposition are acceptable, but alter- 
ations in some particular are desired, the motion for that 
purpose is a motion to amend. 



44 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

26. .. Lie on the Table. 1. Where a proposition is 
laid on the table its consideration can not be resumed 
without a vote to that effect. 2, A motion to lie on the 
table is not debatable nor susceptible of amendment. It 
takes precedence and supersedes all other subsidiary mo- 
tions. A vote to lay a proposition on the table can not be 
reconsidered. 3. Where a proposition is ordered to lie 
on the table, it is removed from before the assembly until 
taken up by vote. 4. A proposition which has been laid 
on the table may be taken uj) any time for consideration, 
by a vote of the assembly. 5. A motion to take a prop- 
osition from the table is not a privileged motion, so it can 
not be properly entertained while some particular order of 
business, or some other particular motion is pending. 6. 
As a motion to lie on the table is not debatable, so a motion 
to take a measure from the table is not debatable. 7. A 
motion to take a measure from the table is in the nature 
of a principal proposition, and if the motion is lost the 
vote by which it is lost may be reconsidered. 

27. 1. Where a member desires a vote to be taken on 
a proposition without further debate or delay he may move 
the previous question. 2. The form of putting the motion 
for the previous question is: "The previous question is 
moved; shall the main question be now put? " 3. When 
a motion for the previous question is sustained whereby 
the main question is ordered, the main question is the orig- 
inal proposition with pending amendments, if any, each of 
which is to be disposed of in its proper order. 4. The 
previous question stands on equal degree with all other 
subsidiary motions, excep.t the motion to lie on the table. 

28. 1. A motion to postpone indefinitely is to be 
decided without debate. 2. Where a motion to postpone 
indefinitely is decided in the affirmative it removes the 
question before the assembly. 3. A motion to postpone 
to a day beyond the sitting of the assembly is of the same 
effect as indefinite postponement. 4. When a motion is 



PARLIAMKNTARY RULES ANSWERS. 45 

postponed to a time fixed, when that time arrives it will 
be in order to resume its consideration. 5. A motion to 
postpone is either indefinite, or to a time certain. In both 
cases it may be amended; in the former by fixing the 
time, ifi the latter by substituting one time for another. 
The latter is treated like filling blanks. 

29. 1. A motion to refer a proposition to a select com- 
mittee and a standing committee may be made and pend- 
ing at the same time. The latter motion takes preced- 
ence and should be first put. 2. A part or the whole of 
any subject may be referred to a committee, or portions 
may be referred to several different committees. 3. After 
a motion to commit a proposition a motion to amend the 
proposition is not in order. 4. A motion to commit may 
itself be amended by substituting another committee from 
that named in the motion, or by enlarging or diminishing 
the number of the committee when the motion is to refer 
to a select committee. 5. When a motion to commit is 
made, it may also be moved that the committee be in- 
structed as to their action upon the proposition. 6. When 
a motion to commit is carried the effect is to remove the 
subject involved from before the assembly for the time 
being. 1. A motion to commit stands in the same degree 
with the previous question and postponement, but it takes 
precedence of a motion to amend. 

30. 1. Amending a proposition is either by adding 
words or taking words from it, or by transposition of 
words, or by division of a subject, which is accomplished 
under different modes, which may be classified thus: 1. 
Filling blanks; 2. Striking out; 3. By inserting; 4. Strik- 
ing out and inserting; 5. Division of a proposition. 2. A 
motion to amend stands in the same degree only with the 
previous question and indefinite postponement; neither, if 
first moved, is superseded by the other. It is liable to be 
superseded by a motion to postpone to a certain day and 
may be superseded by a motion to commit. 



46 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

31. 1. Filling blanks in a proposition is in the nature 
of an original motion, to be made and decided before the 
principal question. 2. In case of filling blanks "with time 
and number, motions may be made for that purpose, and 
the motion taken on each by itself. Several motions for 
this purpose may be made and pending before any of them 
are put to the question. 3. In filling blanks, the usual 
rule is to take the question first on the highest number, 
the largest sum, and the longest time, to which rule, how- 
ever, there are some exceptions. 

32. If an amendment is proposed by striking out, and 
it is rejected, it can not be again moved to strike out the 
same words, nor a part of them; but it may be moved to 
strike out the same words with others, or a part of the 
same words with others. 

33. 1. If an amendment is proposed by inserting or 
adding a paragraph or words, and it is rejected, it can 
not be again moved to insert the same words or part of 
them. 2. When an amendment is proposed by adding a 
paragraph or words, and rejected, it may be again moved 
to insert the same with others, or a part of the same words 
or paragraph with others, if the coherence makes them 
different propositions. 

34. 1. A motion to strike out and insert may be divided 
by a vote of the assembly and each put separately. 2. 
When a proposition to strike out and insert is divided, the 
question is first to be taken on striking out. On a motion 
to strike out and insert, the manner of stating the question 
is first to read the whole passage to be amended, as it 
stands, then the words proposed to be struck out; next 
those to be inserted; and lastly the whole passage as it 
stands when amended. 

35. 1. Where a proposition is composed of two or 
more whole parts which are susceptible of division into 
several parts, it may be divided by order of the assembly 
on motion, as in other cases. 2. Where a proposition is 



PARLIAMENTARY RULES ANSWERS. 47 

divided, the question divided takes a series of independent 
propositions. This may be done by order of the assembly 
on demand of a member. 3. On demand or motion for 
division of a proposition, the presiding officer puts the 
question before tlie assembly for its decision, as in other 
cases. 4. The presiding officer may decide whether the 
proposition is susceptible of division and how many parts 
it may be divided into, subject to appeal, as in other cases. 

36. Privileged questions are: 1. Motion to adjourn. 

2. Motions or questions relating to the rights and privi- 
leges of the assembly, or of its members individually. 

3. Motions for the orders of the day. 

37. 1. A motion to adjourn supersedes all other ques- 
tions. It is not debatable and generally can not be 
amended. 2. A motion to adjourn to a time fixed can be 
amended by offering some other time, and is debatable. 
3. An adjournment for a short time on the same day is 
called a recess. 4. Whilst the general rule relating to a 
motion to adjourn is stated to be that it is always in order, 
yet when put and carried in the negative it can not be 
again put a second time in succession unless some inter- 
vening motion or proposition has been entertained and 
acted upon by the assembly. 5. Nor can a privileged 
motion of this kind be moved by any member while 
another member has the floor. 6. An adjournmeijt with- 
out fixing a day or time on which the assembly shall again 
meet is equivalent to a dissolution of the assembly. 7. 
When an assembly adjourns while a question is pending 
the question is removed from further consideration, and 
will not be pending in the assembly at the time to which^ 
it adjourned. 8. A motion to adjourn is not debatable 
and can not be amended, nor can a vote thereon be recon- 
sidered. 

38. Questions of privilege are such as concern the 
rights and privileges of the assembly or individual mem- 
bers, as when the proceedings are disturbed or interrupted 



48 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

by strangers or members or where a quarrel arises between 
individual members, and the like. Questions of privilege 
take precedence of all others except that of adjournment. 
2. Questions of privilege supersede for the time being the 
pending question, together with all subsidiary and inci- 
dental questions, and must be first disposed of. 3. When a 
question of privilege is settled the question interrupted 
by it is to be resumed at the point at which it was sus- 
pended. 

39. 1. When the consideration of a subject is assigned 
for a particular day, the matter so assigned is called the 
order of the day. 2. Where there are several subjects 
assigned for the same day, they are called the orders of 
the day. 3. Where a question is made the subject of an 
order for consideration on a particular day, it thereby 
becomes the privileged question for that day. 4. A mo- 
tion for the orders of the day supersedes all other motions 
except questions of privilege and motion to adjourn, even 
though a member has the floor. 5. But to entitle this 
motion to supersede the questions as aforesaid, it must be 
for the orders generally, if there be more than one, and 
not for any particular one. 6. If decided in the affirma- 
tive, the orders are then proceeded with in the order in 
which they stand. 7. Where an order is assigned for 
any particular hour of the day, a motion to proceed to it 
is not a privileged motion until that hour has arrived, but 
if no time is fixed the order is for the entire day and every 
part of it. 8. Where there are several orders of the day 
and one is fixed for a particular hour, if the others are 
taken up before that hour, they are to be proceeded with 
as they stand until that hour, and then the subject assigned 
for that hour is to be next in order. 9. Where a motion 
for the orders of the day is decided in the affirmative, the 
question pending at the time is removed from before the 
assembly the same as if it had been interrupted by an 
?idjournment. 10. If the motion is decided in the nega- 



PARLIAMENTARY RULES ANSWERS. 49 

tive it is a discharge of the orders so far as they interfered 
with the consideration of the subject then pending. 11. 
Orders of the day, unless proceeded in and disposed of on 
the day assigned, fall, of course, and must be renewed 
for some other day, or they will be thereby no longer 
pending. 12. Where a call for the orders of the day 
is voted down, the orders of the day stand postponed 
indefinitely and other business prevails. 13. Where a 
call for the order of the day prevails, all other business is 
suspended. 14. A call for the order of the day is not 
debatable and is not subject to amendment. 

40. 1. It is the duty of the presiding officer to enforce 
the rules and order of the assembly without question, 
debate or delay. 2. It is the right of every member tak- 
ing notice of the breach of a rule to insist upon the 
enforcement of it. 3. Questions frequently arise as to 
there being a breach of order in a violation of rules; these 
are called questions of order. 4. When a question of 
order arises in the course of any other proceeding, it super- 
sedes the further consideration of the subject out of which 
it arises until the question of order is disposed of. 5. 
When a question of order is settled the original motion 
or proceeding revives and resumes its former position 
unless it has been disposed of by the question of order. 

6. When a question of order is raised by a member it is 
not stated from the chair and decided by the assembly, 
but it is stated by the member raising it, and decided in 
the first instance by the presiding officer without debate. 

7. The presiding officer may, before giving his decision on 
a question of order raised, invite the opinion and advice of 
experienced members present on the subject. 8. Where 
a decision of the presiding officer on a question of order is 
not satisfactory, any one member may object to it and 
have the question decided by the assembly, called an 
appeal from the decision of the chair. 9. On an appeal 
from a decision of the chair on a question of order, the 

4 



50 THE EXAjVIINER's COMPANION. 

presiding officer is allowed to take part in the debate, from 
his place in the chair. 10. Questions of order are those 
raised by any member as to a breach of any rule. It is 
the privilege of any member to raise questions of order. 

41. 1. Reading of papers brought before an assembly 
may be. called for by any member. 2. Where papers are 
brought before the assembly for action, every member has 
a right to have them read once at the table before he can 
be compelled to vote on them. 3. But where a member 
desires the reading of a paper or other matter, not before 
the assembly for action, or to read his own speech, printed 
or in writing, if objection is made the reading can not 
proceed without leave of the assembly. 4. Where in the 
course of debate or other proceeding the reading of a 
paper is called for, and a question being made as to its 
being read, this question is incidental to the former, and 
must be first decided. 

42. 1. A motion regularly made and stated from the 
chair, or proposition regularly pending, is in possession of 
the assembly, and can not be withdrawn except by leave 
or vote of the assembly. 2. Where leave is granted to 
withdraw a motion, the withdrawing of the same takes 
with it all pending motions dii-ectly relating to it. 3. A 
motion for leave to withdraw a motion is not debatable. 

43. The suspension of a rule, where special rules are 
existing, may be ordered by vote of the assembly to con- 
sider a proposition which would not otherwise be in order. 

44. 1. Where a motion to amend an amendment is 
made, such motion must be first put; if carried in the 
affirmative, the question then recurs on the amendment as 
amended. 2. The motion to amend an amendment is 
incidental to the latter and supersedes it for the time being. 
3. It is proper to move to amend a proposed amendment, 
but a vote to further amend it can not be entertained 

45. 1. In the absence of any express rule, a principal 
question disposed of by vote of the assembly, either in 



PARLIAMENTARY RULES ANSWERS. 51 

the affirmative or negative, may be reconsidered by vote 
of the majority, on motion, as in other cases. 2. A motion 
to reconsider being decided in the negative, it is a final 
disposition of the question and can not be again moved. 
3. In the absence of any special rule of the assembly, a 
motion to reconsider may be made by any member, with- 
out reference to whether he voted in the affirmative or 
negative on the original question. 4. Where a motion to 
reconsider prevails, the question pending will be on the 
original proposition, the same as it stood before any vote 
thereon was taken, and in like manner again open to debate. 
5. A motion to reconsider applies in general to a princi- 
pal question, or some material motion. It does not apply 
to incidental motions, and the like. 

46, The committees in deliberative assemblies are: 
1. Standing Committees. 2. Select Committees. 3. Com- 
mittee of the Whole, 

47, 1. Standing Committees are those appointed to 
stand during the term of the assembly. 2. Select Com- 
mittees are those appointed to consider a particular sub- 
ject. 3. Committee of the Whole is a committee com- 
prised of all the members of the assembly, to consider 
any subject referred to them. 4. Standing and Select 
Committees in the absence of any express rule or vote of 
the assembly are appointed by the presiding officer. 5. 
The first person named on a committee is considered the 
chairman, but in the absence of any rule or custom to the 
contrary the committee may appoint one of their number 
as chairman. 6. It is the duty of a committee to reporc 
their opinion on the merits of the questions referred to 
them, either for or against them; but they may forbear an 
opinion and ask to be discharged from further considera- 
tion of the subject. V. A committee can not properly in 
their report recommend dilatory action, as that the subject 
be laid on the table, postponed, referred to some other 
committee, and the like, 8. When a report of a committee 



52 THE examiner's COMPANIONo 

is made, it is customary for the assembly to receive the 
same without any further vote thereon. 9. When the 
report of a select committee is received the committee are 
discharged without any action of the assembly. 10. After 
a report of the committee is received, the question recurs 
on its adoption, and this without any formal action to that 
end. 11. After a report is adopted the recommendation 
of the committee becomes the sense of the assembly. 

48. 1. A committee of the whole is comprised of all 
the members of the assembly, organized as a committee. 
2. In committee of the whole the strict rules of order 
governing the assembly itself in the dispatch of business, 
are dispensed Avith, and only general necessary rules are 
observed. 3. If a motion to go into the committee of 
the whole prevails, it is customary for the presiding officer 
of the assembly to designate some member to act as chair- 
man, but in the absence of any special rule to the contrary 
the committee may disregard such appointment and select 
their own chairman. 4. In organizing the committee of 
the whole nothing further is necessary than the selection 
of a chairman. The selection of a clerk is a matter of 
discretion of the committee. 6. To constitute a commit- 
tee of the whole for business, a quorum or majority of the 
members of the assembly should be present. 6. Where 
there is not a quorum present the committee should rise 
and report the fact to the assembly, for its action. V. 
Where a proposition referred to the committee of the 
whole consists of several questions or progressions, the 
same should be considered separately, beginning with the 
first in number. After reading each it is open to debate. 
8. In committee of the whole, privileged, subsidiary, and 
incidental questions of a dilatory character are, in general, 
not recognized. 9. The following general rules are laid 
down: 1. The previous question can not be moved in 
committee of the Vhole; 2. The committee can not allow 
other committees to adjourn to some time and place; 3, 



PARTJAMENTARY RULES ANSWERS. 53 

Every member can speak as often as he can obtain the 
floor; 4, A committee of the whole can not refer a matter 
to another committee; 5. A committee of the whole has 
no authority to punish for a breach of order; matters of 
this kind should be referred to the assembly for action. 
10. Debate on questions may be determined by a motion 
to close debate on the pending question. 11. As a gen- 
eral rule, dilatory motions are not practicable in a commit- 
tee of the whole. 12. When a committee of the whole 
desire to terminate their session, it is done on motion that 
the committee rise and report progress. 13. No formal 
record of the proceedings of the committee of the whole 
is required to be kept. It is sufficient to preserve a brief 
memorandum. 

49. 1. If the decision of a presiding officer on a ques- 
tion raised is not satisfactory, any member may except to 
it and demand that it be decided by the assembly — called 
an appeal from the decision of the chair. 2. On appeal 
the question is stated by the presiding officer, thus: "Shall 
the decision of the chair stand as the decision of the 
assembly," or "as the decision of the house?" 3. On 
appeal from the decision of the chair the question is open 
to debate, and is decided by the assembly the same as any 
other question. 4. An appeal from a decision of the pre- 
siding officer may be taken at any time, and moved even 
while another member has the floor. 5. An appeal may 
be withdrawn by the member moving it. 0. An appeal 
may be laid upon the table in the manner of other ques- 
tions, which is considered a final disposition of the sub- 
ject. Y. Laying an appeal upon the table has been 
adopted as a mode of disposing of the subject without 
expressing an opinion upon it. 

50. 1. When any member desires to speak he is to 
stand up in his place and' address himself to the speaker. 
2. When a member stands up to speak, no question as a 
general rule is to be put to the assembly while he is speak- 



54 THE examiner's companion. 

ing, biat he is to be heard to the end of his remarks, unless 
the assembly overrule for some breach of order. 3. 
Where two members rise to address the presiding officer 
at the same time, the member whose voice is first heard 
should be accorded the floor, 4. If two or more mem- 
bers rise to speak at the same time, the presiding officer 
determines who was first up, subject to appeal, however, 
in the absence of any special rule to the contrary. 5. 
Where a decision of the chair in according the floor to a 
member, in case two or more rise at the same time, is called 
in question, the question may be decided by taking the 
sense of the assembly thereon by appeal, as in other cases. 
6. In taking the sense of the assembly in the case afore- 
said, the question should be first taken on the name of the 
member announced by the presiding officer; if this is lost, 
then it should be taken upon the member next in order 
claiming the floor. 7. A member obtaining the floor for 
a particular purpose, as in case of the chairman of a com- 
mittee for the purpose of making a report, is not entitled 
to occupy the floor for any other purpose except by leave 
of the assembly. 8. Before there can be any debate in a 
deliberative assembly, there must be some question prop- 
erly pending, which is debatable. 9. A member who has 
the floor for any purpose, must yield the same to the pre- 
siding officer when he rises to give information or state a 
point of order. 10. When a member who has the floor in 
debate is called to order, he must cease speaking and yield 
the floor until the question of order is decided. 11. When 
a member who has the floor yields it to another, although 
temporarily, with the understanding between them that he 
may resume it presently, he loses his right to resume it 
again, except by leave of the assembly. 12. When a 
member in debate desires the reading of papers, he should 
send them to the clerk or secretary to be read. It is not 
strictly in order for a member to read them himself from 
his place on the floor. 13. It is a general rule that no 



PARLIAMENTARY RULES ANSWERS. 55 

member can speak more than once on the same proposi- 
tion, but where amendments are proposed he may speak to 
each amendment. But a member may be permitted to 
speak again to clear a matter of fact, or merely explain 
himself in some material part of his speech. 14. The 
presiding officer may have a right to speak of matters of 
order and be first heard, but not otherwise, except by 
leave of the assembly.- 15. The presiding officer being, 
a member of the assembly, may call some mem- 
ber to the chair, and on resuming his place on the 
floor may speak to a pending question the same as 
other members. 16. No member is to speak imperti- 
nently, tediously, or depart from the question pend- 
ing. 11. Members are not allowed in debate to reflect 
on any prior determination of the assembly, unless he 
intends to conclude with a motion to rescind it. 18. 
While a proposition under consideration is undetermined, 
although it has been reported by a committee, reflecting 
on it is no reflection on the assembly. 19. No member 
in speaking is to mention another member then present by 
his name. 20. No member is to disturb another in his 
speech by hissing, coughing, or other like conduct. 21. 
In case of disorder, if repeated calls do not produce 
order, the presiding officer may call by his name any 
member obstinately persisting in irregularity. 22. Dis- 
orderly words on the part of a member are not to be 
noticed until he has finished his speech; then the person 
objecting to them and desiring them to be taken down by 
the clerk must repeat them. The presiding officer may 
direct the clerk to take them down in his minutes, but if 
he thinks them not disorderly he may delay the direction. 
23. After disorderly words are taken down by the clerk, 
the matter is open to the action of the assembly. 24. 
When a member has spoken, or other business inter- 
vened after disorderly or offensive words spoken, such 
words can not then be taken notice of for censure. 25. 



56 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

Disorderly words spoken in a committee must be written 
down as in the assembly, but the committee can only report 
them to the assembly for action. It is a breach of order 
in debate in legislative assemblies to notice what has been 
said on the same subject in the other house, and the 
particular votes and majorities in the other. Neither house 
in legislative assemblies can exercise any authority over a 
member or officer of the other, but should complain to 
the house of which he is a member or officer. Penalty 
for misconduct of a member may be by reprimanding, 
exclusion from the assembly, a prohibition to vote or 
speak for a specified time, or expulsion. 

51. One rap of the gavel only should be given by the 
presiding officer in calling the assembly to order. One 
rap of the gavel is proper in announcing that any particu- 
lar order of business is closed. One rajD of the gavel may 
be given in commanding the attention of members for any 
purpose. One rap of the gavel should be given when 
declaring the assembly adjourned. 




C^i^fe'M^ 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 





m^ssm'm^^^m^ 



QUESTIONS. 



1. Define Composition. 

2. What are prose compositions? 

3. What are poetic compositions? 

4. Define Rhetoric. 

5. What is punctuation? 

6. Name the principal points used in punctuation. 

7. In regard to the length of the pauses indicated by 
these marks, can a definite rule be given? 

8. As a general rule what is the guide? 

9. Where is the comma generally used? 

10. Give the special rules, and examples, of the comma. 

11. For what purpose is the semicolon used? 

12. What is the general rule of the semicolon? 

13. Mention the special rules and give examples of the 
semicolon. 

14. For what purpose is the colon used? 
Mention the special rules and give examples of the 



15. 

colon 

16. 

17. 



What can you say of the pei'iod? 
What can you say of the interrogation point? 
(57) 



58 THE EXAMINER^S COMPANION. 

18. What may be said of the dash? 

19. What is said of the note of exclamation? 

20. What does the parenthesis inchide? 

21. For what purpose are brackets used? 

22. Define Diction. 

23. Would you consider a command of words import- 
ant? 

24. How is a command of words to be obtained? 

25. Wliat are the qualities of style most needed? 

26. Purity of style consists in what? 
2 7. What is the standard of purity? 

28. Propriety of language consists in what? 

29. Precision consists in what? 

30. With respect to sentences what are necessary? 

31. What may be said regarding clearness? 

32. Unity consists in what? 

33. Strength consists in what? 

34. A discourse and its parts are how considered? 

35. Orations by the ancients were divided into how 
many parts, and what are they? 

36. What is an essay? 

37. What is a figure of Rhetoric? 

38. How many chief figures of Rhetoric are there? 

39. Define a simile. 

40. Define a metaphor. 

41. What is an allegory? 

42. Define metonymy. 

43. What are the chief relations on which metonymy 
is founded? 

44. Defin'e synecdoche. 

45. What is an hyperbole? 

46. What is vision, or imagery? 

47. Define apostrophe. 

48. What is personification? 

49. Define erotesis. 

50. Define ecphonesis. 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC QUESTIONS. 



59 



51. Antithesis consists in what? 

52. Define climax. 

53. Define irony. 

54. Define apophasis. 

55. Define the parallel. 

56. Define paralipsis. 

57. Define allusion. 

58. What can you say of repetition? 

59. Define alHteration. 

60. What is euphemism? 

61. Define onomatopoeia. 

62. Define poetry. 

63. What relation has poetry to other arts? 

64. Name the different kinds of poetry. 

65. What is an epic poem? 

66. What may be said of its high character? 

67. What can you say of dramatic poetry? 

68. What is its likeness to epic poetry? 

69. How are modern dramas divided? 

70. What two kinds of drama are there? 

71. What can you say of tragedy? 

72. What can you say of comedy? 

73. What is a farce? An opera? 

74. What is a melodrama? 

75. What can you say of lyric poetry? 

76. What can you say of the character of lyric poetry? 

77. Does lyric poetry differ from epic poetry? 

78. What is the most common form of lyric poetry? 

79. What may be said of sacred odes? 

80. What may be said of heroic odes? 

81. Moral odes include what? 

82. Amatory odes are generally known as what? 

83. What can you say of comic songs? 

84. Bacchanalian songs are to be sung in honor of 
whom? 

85. Define an elegy. 



60 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

86. What is" the form of an elegy? 

87 What is an epitaph? 

88. Define pastoral poetry. 

89. What were the pastoral poems of Virgil called? 
90 What is a didactic poem? Its character. 

91. Why do critics object to this line of poetry? 

92. What is a satire? A lampoon? 

93. Prose is the terra applied to what? 

94 What are the chief varieties of prose composition? 

95. What is a letter? 

96. What are the points in the form of a letter? 

97. What is the first thing to be observed in writing 
a letter? 

98. What is said regarding the place? 

99. What can you say of the street and number? 
100. What is said regarding the state? 

101 What is said regarding contractio7is? 

102. Should the county be added? 

103 What is the reason for particularity? 

104 Are these matters important? 

105 Is it necessary to mention the time in letters? 

106. What is the form of heading? 

107. What is said about placing the date of a letter at 
the bottom? 

108. What can you say of the address of a letter in 
military form? 

109. What is said of ordinary letters? 

110. How do we begin our letters? 

111. What is said regarding the close of a letter? 

112. What about business letters? 

113. State what is said about the subscription? 

114. Do these terms vary? 

115. Respecting initials what can you say? 

116. In signing one's name to a letter is it best to dis- 
close the sex? 

117. What is said about married women and widows? 

118. What is said about terms of endearment? 



COMPOSITION AND KHETORIC— QUESTIONS. 61 

119. What is said of the arrangement of the sub- 
scription? 

120. What is meant by the superscription of a letter? 

121. Why is this important? 

122. Wliat may be said regarding the penmanship of 
the superscription of a letter? 

123. Of how many parts does the superscription con- 
sist, and what are they? 

124. Wliat is said about the name of the person 
addressed? 

• 125. What is said about the titlef 

126. State what is said regarding common titles. 

127. What is said of professional titles? 

128. What may be further said about the title Es<^.? 

129. What is said of higher and lov)er titles? 

130. What is said of the titles of clergymen? 

131. What is said of the^;re/a?, honorable? 

132. Regarding the full name what may be said? 

133. How is the Governor of a State addressed? 

134. In Washington, D. C, what form is prescribed in 
addressing the President of the United States? 

135. What is said of the residence of the person 
addi'essed? 

136. What is said of the name of the State"^ 

137. For what reason should the name of the State be 
written out in full? 

138. Give an example where the State was not loritten 

f>nt ill full. 

139. The itejns of residence should be how arranged? 

1 40. Where should the name be placed on the envelope ? 
14!. For appearance and practical convenience it is 

better to let th j name and title occupy aline where? 

J 4 2. Deline a diary. What is said of the subjects 
recorded ? 

143. AVhat is said of the essential character of a diary? 

144. What is said regarding dates in a diary? 



62 THE examinee's companion. 

145. Is it best to register the place "whera each entry is 
made? 

146. In modern times what is considered next to writ- 
ing letters? 

14Y. What is the literary character of the news columns? 
148. What are some of the things to be aimed at by 
the writer of news? 

140. What is said of- editorials? 

150. What is the order of composition for the editorial 
columns? 

151. Should the editor have an estimate of his own 
position? 

152. Is fame ever attained by writing editorials? 

153. What are reviews? 

154. The magazine, like the paper, is what? 

155. Reviews, like editorials, embrace what? 

156. Are essays different from reviews? 

157. Does an essay ever base its remarks upon a book? 

158. Are there any points of resemblance between 
essays and reviews? 

159. What is the mode of publication of essays? 

160. What is a treatise? 

161. Do treatises differ from essays? 

162. Are treatises plain in style? 

163. Is there a difference of subject between essays 
and treatises? 

164. What is said of text-books? 

165. What class of books come nearer to diaries than 
to any other kind of writing? 

166. How do books of travel compare with diaries? 
] 67. What is said in regard to accuracy? 

168. What is said of history? 

1 69. What is said regarding the chronological order of 
history? 

1 7o. State what is said about keeping up the conneC' 
tion in history. 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC QUESTIONS. 63 

171. How should an historian keep up the interest in 
his work? 

172. What are annals? 

173. Define memoirs. 

174. What is a biography? 

1 75. In what respect does biography differ from me- 
moirs? 

176. What is an autobiography? 

177. Define a fiction. 

178. How are novels divided? 

179. How does the novelist appeal to the curiosity of 
the reader? 

180. What is the general effect of novel reading? 

181. Are there novels of a higher aim? 

182. In what does a discourse differ from the other 
kinds of composition heretofore described? 

183. What are the principal kinds of discourse? 

184. What is an oration? 

185. Define an address. 

186. What is said of college addresses? 

187. What is a sermon? 

188. Define a lecture. 

189. How many kinds of lectures, and what are they? 

190. What is said of speeches? 

191. How are speeches usually delivered? 

192. A discourse which is to produce a profound im- 
pression must maintain what? 

193. What is said regarding the adaptation of a dis- 
course to the audience? 

1 94. In what respect do discourses differ from treatises ? 

195. When is a discourse symmetrical? 

196. What are the parts of a discourse? 

197. What is said of the introduction? 

198. What is said of the statement? 

199. Mention what is stated regarding the main discourse. 

200. State what you can in reference to the conclusion 
of a discourse. 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC 







ANSWERS. 



1. Composition is the art of expressing our thoughts in 
spoken or written language. It is of two kinds, prose and 
poetry. 

2. Prose compositions are those in which the thoughts 
are expressed in the natural order, in common and ordinary- 
language. 

3. Poetic compositions are those in which the thoughts 
and sentiments are expressed in measured verse, in loftier 
and more inverted style, by words and figures selected and 
arranged so as to please the ear, and captivate the fancy. 

4. Rhetoric, in the widest sense in wliich the word is 
occasionally used by modern writers, is the art of prose 
composition generally; in the most restricted and most 
etymological sense, the art of oratory, or addressing 
public assemblies ; in an intermediate sense, in which, 
perhaps it is most commonly employed, the art of argu- 
mentative composition. 

5. Punctuation is the art of dividing written discourse 
into sections by means of points, for the purpose of show- 
ing the grammatical connection and dependence, and of 
making the sense more obvious. 

(64) 



COMPOSITION AND KHETORIC ANSWERS. 65 

6. The principal marks used in punctuation are the 
following: The comma ( ,), the semicolon ( ; ), the colon 
( : ), the period ( . ), the interrogation point (?), the 
exclamation point ( ! ), the dash ( — ), the parenthesis ( ), 
the bracket [ ]. 

7. With respect to the length of the pauses indicated 
by these marks, no very definite rule can be given; the 
same point in certain kinds of composition, and in certain 
positions, requiring sometimes a longer and sometimes a 
shorter pause. 

8. As a general rule, the comma marks the shortest 
pause; the semicolon, a pause double that of the comma; 
the colon, a pause double that of the semicolon; and the 
period, a pause still longer than that of the colon. 

9. The comma is generally used in those parts of a 
sentence in which a short pause is required, and to mark 
a connection next in closeness to that which is unbroken. 

10. Rule 1. — In a short, simple sentence, the comma 
is not used; as, "Hope is necessary in every condition of 
life." 

Rule 2. — When the logical subject of a verb is rendered 
long by the addition of several adjuncts, or other qualify- 
ing words, to the grammatical subject, a comma is usually 
inserted before the verb; as, " A steady and undivided 
attention to one subject, is a sure mark of a supei'ior 
mind." 

Rule .3. — In complex and compound sentences, the 
clauses or members are usually separated by commas; as, 
" Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, 
and wise men use them." But when the clauses are short, 
or closely connected, the comma is not used; as, "Revela- 
tion tells us how we may attain happiness." 

Rule 4. — Two words of the same class, connected by a 
conjunction expressed, do not admit a comma between 
them; as, "The earth and the moon are planets." — "He is 
a wise and prudent man." But when the conjunction is 



66 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

not expressed, a comma is inserted after each; as, " Reasoii, 
virtue, answer one great aim." But, of two adjectives, 
tlie last should not be separated by a comma from its noun; 
as, " He is 2, plain, honest man." Nor can two adjectiA^es 
be separated from each other by a comma when used 
together as a compound adjective; as, " A bright-red color." 

Rule 5. — More than two words of the same class, con- 
nected by conjunctions expressed or understood, have a 
comma after each; as, "Poetry, music, and painting, are 
fine arts." But when the words connected are adjectives, 
the last should not be separated from its noun by a comma 
after it; as, " David was a xoise, brave, and prudent king." 

Rule 6. — Words used in pairs take a comma after each 
pair; as, " Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, 
desolation and ruin, are the consequences of civil war." 

Rule 7. — Nouns in apposition are separated by a 
comma, when the latter noun has several words or adjuncts 
connected with it; as, " Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles." 
But a single noun in apposition with another is not separa- 
ted by a comma; as, " Paul the apostle." 

Rule 8. — The nominative independent, and the nomi- 
native absolute, with the words dependent on them, are 
separated by commas from the rest of the sentence; as, 
"My son, hear the instruction of thy father."—" I am, sir, 
your obedient servant." — "The time of youth being pre- 
cious, we should devote it to improvement." — "To confess 
the truth, I was in fault." 

Rule 9. — Comparative and antithetical clauses are sep- 
arated by a comma; thus,. "As the hart panteth after the 
water-brooks, so doth my soul pant after thee." — "Though 
deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull." But when 
the comparison is short, and the connection intimate, the 
comma is not used; as, ."Wisdom is better than rubies." 

Rule 10. — The adverbs nay, so, hence, again, first, sec- 
ondly, etc., when considered important, and particularly 
at the beginning of a sentence, should be separated from 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC — ANSWERS. 67 

the context by a comma; as, " Nay, but we will serve the 
Lord." So also, as and thus, introducing an example or 
quotation, as in the preceding sentence. 

Rule 11. — A relative with its clause, explanatory of its 
antecedent, is usually separated from the rest of a sen- 
tence; as, " He who disregards the good opinion of the 
world, must be utterly abandoned," or, "He must be 
utterly abandoned, who disregards," etc. But when the 
relative, with its clause, is restrictive, and the connection 
so close that it can not be separated, the comma is not 
used; as, "Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must 
make." 

Rule 12. — That, used as a conjunction, and preceded by 
another clause, usually has a comma before it; as, " Be 
virtuous, that you may be happy." But when the clause 
introduced by that is the subject or the object of the verb 
in the preceding clause, the comma is not inserted; as, 
" It is vfeWthat he should know it." — " I said that ye are 
gods." 

Rule 13. — When a verb is understood, a comma must 
be inserted; as, " Reading makes a full man; conversation, 
a ready man; and writing, an exact man." 

Rule 14. — Words repeated are separated by a comma; 
as, " Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord God Almighty." — " No, 
no, no, it can not be." 

Rule 1 5. — Inverted sentences, by throwing two or more 
words out of their regular connection, often require a 
comma; as, " To God, all things are possible." Not 
inverted, it would be, " All things are possible to God." — 
" His delight was, to assist the distressed." In the natural 
order, "To assist the distressed was his delight." 

Rule 16. — A short expression, in the matter of a quo- 
tation, is separated by commas; as, "Plutarch calls lying, 
the vice of slaves." Also the verbs say, reply, and the like, 
with their dependent words introducing a quotation or 
remark, are usually separated by commas; as, "The book 



68 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

of nature, said he, is open before thee." — "I say unto all, 
watch." 

Rule 17. — Adjectives, participles, adverbs, infinitives, 
etc., when separated from the word on which they depend, 
or, when accompanied by several adjuncts, commonly 
require commas to be inserted; as, "His talents, formed 
for great enterprises, could not fail of rendering him 
conspicuous." — "To conclude, I can only say this." — "We 
must not, hoioever, neglect our duty." 

11. The semicolon is used to separate the parts of a 
sentence which are less closely connected than those which 
are separated by the comma, and more closely than those 
which are separated by the colon. 

12. The parts of a sentence separated by a semicolon, 
should contain in themselves a complete and independent 
proposition, but still having a connection with the other 
parts. 

18. Rule 1. — When the first division of a sentence 
contains a complete proposition, but is followed by a clause 
added as an inference or reason, or to give some explana- 
tion, the part thus added must be separated by a semi- 
colon; as, "Perform your duty faithfully; for this will 
procure you the blessing of heaven." — " The orator makes 
the truth plain to his hearers; he awakens them; he excites 
them to action; he shows them their impending danger." 

Rule 2.— When several short sentences, complete in 
themselves, but having a slight connection in idea, follow 
in succession, they should be separated by a semicolon; as, 
"The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero; tragedy 
represents a disastrous event; comedy ridicules the vices 
and follies of mankind; pastoral poetry describes rural 
life; and elegy displays the tender emotions of the heart." 

Rule 3. — When a sentence consists of several members, 
and these members are comj^lex, and sub-divided by com- 
mas, the larger divisions of the sentence are sometimes 
separated by a semicolon; as, "As the desire of approba- 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC — ANSWERS. 69 

tion, when it works according to reason, improves the 
amiable part of our species in everything that is laudable; 
so nothing is more destructive to them, when it is gov- 
erned by vanity and folly."' 

Rule 4. — When a general term has several others, as 
particulars, in apposition under it, the general term is 
separated from the particulars by a 'semicolon, and the 
particulars, from each other by commas; as, "Adjective 
pronouns are divided into four classes: possessive, distrib- 
utive, demonstrative, and indefinite." But if the word 
namely be introduced the separation is made by a comma 
only. 

14. The colon is used to divide a sentence into two or 
more parts, less connected than those which are separated 
by a semicolon, but not so independent as to require a 
period. 

15. Rule 1. — A colon is used when a sentence is com- 
plete in itself, in both sense and construction, but is 
followed by some additional remark or illustration, depend- 
ing upon it in sense, though not in syntax; as, " The brute 
arrives at a point of perfection that he can never pass: in 
a few years he has all the endowments of which he is 
capable." — "Study to acquire a habit of thinking: nothing 
is more important." 

Rule 2. — When several short sentences follow in suc- 
cession, each containing a complete sense in itself, but all 
having a common dependence on some subsequent clause, 
these sentences are separated from the subsequent clause 
by a colon, and from each other by a semicolon; as, " That 
nature is unlimited in her operations; that she has inex- 
haustible resources in reserve; that knowledge will always 
be progressive; and that ail future generations will con- 
tinue to make discoveries: these are among the assertions 
of philosophers." 

Rule 3. — A colon (sometimes a semicolon) maybe used 
when an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced; 



70 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

as, "Always remember this ancient maxim: ' Know thy- 
self.'" — "The Scriptures give us an animated represen- 
tation of the Deity in these words: ' God is love.' " 

Rule 4. — The insertion or omission of a conjunction 
before the concluding member of a sentence frequently 
determines the use of the colon or semicolon. When the 
conjunction is not expressed before the concluding member, 
which would otherwise be separated by a semicolon, the 
colon is used; but when the conjunction is expressed, 
the semicolon; as, "Apply yourself to learning: it will 
redound to your honor." — " Apply yourself to learning; 
for it will redound to your honor." 

16. The period separates sentences which are complete 
in sense, and not connected in either meaning or gram- 
matical construction; thus, " Fear God. Have charity 
toward all men." 

But when short sentences are connected in meaning, but 
not in construction, they are separated by a semicolon. 

Long sentences, if complete, even though grammatically 
connected by conjunctions, often insert a period; thus, 
" He who lifts up himself to the notice and observation of 
the world, is, of all men, the least likely to avoid censure. 
For he draws upon himself a thousand eyes that will nar- 
rowly inspect him in every part." 

A period must be used at the end of all books, chapters, 
sections, etc.; also, after all abbreviations; as, A. D., M. 
A., Art. II., Obs. 3., J. Smith, etc. — Appendix, XII. 

17. A question is regarded as a complete sentence, and 
the interrogation point as equal to the period. The note of 
interrogation is always put at the end of a direct question; 
as, "What is truth?" But the indirect question does not 
require the interrogation point; as, " Pilate inquired what 
is truth 

18. The dash is used where the sentence breaks off 
abruptly; also, to denote a significant pause — an unex- 
pected turn in the sentiment— or that the first clause is 
common to all the rest, as in this definition. 



COMPOSITION AND KHETORIC — ANSWERS. 71 

19. The note of exclamation is used after expressions 
of sudden emotion of any kind; also, in invocations or 
addresses, as, "Eternity! thou pleasing, dreadful thought." 
Oh has the mark immediately after it, or after the next 
word; as, " Oh! that he would come." But when O is used, 
the note is placed after some intervening words; as, "O 
my friends! " 

20. The parenthesis includes a clause inserted in the 
body of a sentence, in order to some useful or necessary 
information or remark, but which may be omitted without 
injuring the construction of the sentence; as, " Know ye 
not, brethren (for I speak to them that know the law), 
how that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he 
liveth?" In reading, the parenthetic part is distinguished 
by a lower or altered tone of voice. When the clause is 
short, and accords with the general tenor of the sentence, 
commas are now generally used instead, of parentheses; as, 
"Thou sluggish power, if potoer thou be, All destitute of 
energy." The use of parentheses should be avoided as 
much as possible. 

21. Brackets are properly used to enclose a word or 
phrase interpolated for the purpose of explanation, or cor- 
rection, or to supply a deficiency in a sentence quoted or 
regarded as such, and which did not belong to the original 
composition; thus, "It is said, the wisest men [and, it 
might be added, the best too] are not exempt from human 
frailty." 

22. Diction is that part of Rhetoric which treats of 
the selection and the right use of words. 

23. No one can be successful as a writer or speaker, 
who has not a great number of words at his command, 
and who has not such a knowledge of the precise mean- 
ing of each as to be able in all cases to select just that 
word which expresses most perfectly the idea intended. 

24. It is not in the power of rules to give one a com- 
mand of words. To this end, two things chiefly are 



72 THE examiner's companion. 

necessary: an enlarged course of reading, and a habit of 
observation in regard to tlie words met with. Linguistic 
studies are particularly suited to enlarge one's vocabulary. 
Habitual association with persons of education and re- 
finement has likewise a tendency to increase one's stock 
of words; some persons have by nature a special talent for 
their species of acquistition, and words on almost every 
subject seem to come at their bidding. Such a talent, 
whether natural or acquired, is of the greatest importance. 

25. The qualities of style most needed, so far as dic- 
tion is concerned, are purity, propriety, and precision. 

26. Purity of style consists in the use of only such 
words and phrases as belong to the language which we 
write or speak. 1. Avoid foreign words and modes of ex- 
pression, as " Fraicheur^'' " hauteur''' ; he repented him- 
self; it serves to an excellent purpose. 2. Avoid obsolete 
and unauthorized words; as, aforetime, judgmatical, albeit. 

27. The only standard of purity is the practice of the 
best writers and speakers. A violation of purity is called 
a barbarism, which word is defined to be an offense against 
lexicography, 

28. Propriety of language consists m the selection and 
right construction of such words as the best usage has appro- 
priated to those ideas which we intend to express. 1. 
Avoid low and provincial expressions; as, " Says I," 
"Thinks I to myself." 2. In writing j)rose, reject words 
or phrases that are merely poetical; as, " This morn." 
"The celestial orbs." 3. Avoid technical terms, unless 
you write for those who perfectly understand them. 4. 
Do not use the same word too frequently, or in different 
senses; as, " I want to go and see what he vmnts^'' " His 
own reason might have suggested better reasons.'''' 5. 
Supply words that are wanting. Thus, instead of saying, 
"This action increased his former services," say, "This 
action increased the merit q/'his former services." 6. Avoid 
equivocal or ambiguous exj^ressions; as, " His memory 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC —ANSWERS. 73 

shall be lost on the earth." " I long- since learned to like 
nothing but what you (/o." V. Avoiil unintelligible and 
inconsistent expressions; as, " These words do not convey 
even an opaque idea of the author's meaning." 8. Observe 
the natural order of things and events and do not put the 
cart before the horse; as, "He tnmh\Q(\, Jiead over heels, 
into the water." " The scribes taught and studied the law 
of Moses." 

29. Precision consists in avoiding all superfluous words 
and adapting the expression exactly to the thought, so as 
to exhibit neither more nor less than is intended by the 
author. 1. Avoid tautology; as, "Wherever I go, he 
always meets me there." " YLis ^faithfulness awdjidelitt/ were 
unequaled." 2. Observe the exact meaning of words 
accounted synonymous. Thus, instead of " Though his 
actions and intentions were good, he lost his character^'' 
say, " He lost his reputation^ 

30. With respect to sentences, clearness, tinity, strength, 
and a proper application of the figures of speech, are neces- 
sary. 

31. Clearness demands a proper arrangement of words. 
1. Adverbs, relative pronouns, and explanatory phrases, 
must be placed as near as possible to the words which 
they affect, and in such situation as the sense requires. 2. 
In prose, a poetic collocation must be avoided. 3. Pro- 
nouns must be so used as clearly to indicate the word for 
which they stand. 

32. Unity consists in avoiding useless breaks or pauses 
and keeping one object predominant throughout a sentence 
or paragraph. 1 . Separate into distinct sentences such 
clauses as have no immediate connection. 2. The princi- 
pal words must, throughout a sentence, be the most promi- 
nent, and only one leading subject should be presented. 
3. Avoid the introduction of parentheses, except when a 
lively remark may be thrown in, without too long suspend- 
ing the sense of what iroes before. 



74 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

33. Strength gives to every word and every member 
its due importance. A concise style is the most favorable 
to strength. 1. Place the most important words in the 
situation in which they will make the strongest impression. 
2. A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger; and 
when the sentence consists of two members, the longer 
should be the concluding one. 3. When things are to be 
compared or contrasted, their resemblance or opposition 
will be rendered more striking if some resemblance in the 
language and construction be preserved. 4. It is, in gen- 
eral, ungraceful to end a sentence with an adverb, a prepo- 
sition, or any inconsiderable word or phrase, which may 
either be omitted or introduced earlier. 

34. A composition in which a proposition is laid down 
and an attempt made to persuade others that it is true is 
an argumentative discourse. If it be on religious subjects, 
it is a sermon; on other subjects, a speech or oration. 

35. Orations by the ancients were divided into six 
parts: 1. The Exordium, or introduction, in which the 
speaker strove to make his hearers attentive and disposed 
to receive his arguments. 2. The Division, or plan the 
speaker intended to preserve in treating the subject. 3. 
The /Statement, in which the subject and facts connected 
therewith were laid down. 4. The -Reasoning, in which 
the arguments were set forth. 5. The Appeal to the feel- 
ings — a most important division of a discourse. 6. The 
Peroration, in which the speaker summed up all he had 
said and concluded his discourse. 

36. An essay is a composition, generally on some 
abstract subject, devoted rather to an investigation of 
causes, effects, etc., than to an examination of visible and 
material peculiarities. Brief descriptions and narrations 
may be introduced with advantage. 

3Y. A Figure of Rhetoric is some deviation from the 
plain and ordinary mode of expression, with a view of 
making the meaning more effective. 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC ANSWERS. 75 

38. There are twenty-two principal figures of Rhetoric, 
which are mentioned below and examples given. 

39. A simile is a simple and express comparison and is 
generally introduced by like^ as or so. Ex's. — " The con- 
demnation of Socrates took him away in his full grandeur 
and glory, like the setting of a tropical sun." " True ease 
in writing comes from art, not chance, as those move 
easiest who have learnt to dance." 

40 A metaphor is a figure that expresses the resem- 
blance of two objects by applying either the name or some 
attribute, adjunct or action of the one directly to the other. 
Ex's. — " His eye was morning'' s brightest ray^ " The ves- 
sel was now full, and this last drop made the waters of 
bitterness overflow." 

41. An allegory is a continued narration of fictitious 
events, designed to represent and illustrate important 
realities. Thus the Psalmist represents the Jexoish nation 
under the symbol of a viyie; " Thou hast brought a vine 
out of Egypt; thou hast cast out the heathen and planted 
it," etc. 

42. Metonymy means a change of name. This is a 
figure in which the name of one object is put for some 
other object, the two being so related that the mention of 
one naturally suggests the other. Example.— "The drunk- 
ard loves his bottle.'''' Now, we know that it is not the 
bottle, but what it contains, that the drunkard loves. The 
bottle is put for the liquor, the container for the thing 
contained, and this change of name is a metonymy, 

43. The principal relations on which metonymy is 
founded are as follows: 1. Cause and effect; as, "Extrava- 
gance is the ruiri of many " — that is, the cause of ruin. 2. 
Ancestor and descendants; as, "Then shall Judah triumph" 
— that is, the descendants of Judah. 3. Attribute and that 
to which it belongs; as, '■'■ Pride shall be brought low" — 
that is, the jOT-OMC?. 4. Container and the thing contained; 
as, '*The^-e?^^e boils" — that \% \)^e, vmter in the kettle. 5. 



76 THE examiner's companion. 

Emblem and thing represented; as, "This Avas offensive 
to the cro'wn'''' — that is, the king. 6. Material and thing 
made of it; as " Gold is all-powerful " — that is, vioney. 

44. Synecdoche is the meaning of the whole for a part, 
or of a part for the whole; as, "She has seen sixteen 
sunimers'''' [years]. "This roof [house] protects you." 
"Now the year [summer] is beautiful." "The colt will be 
three years old next grass " [spring]. 

45. Hyperbole is exaggeration. It consists in repre- 
senting things to be either greater or less, better or worse, 
than they really are. The object of hyperbole is to make 
the thought more effective by overstating it. Example. — 
When we read of " waves mountain high^'' we know that 
no waves ever reached that altitude, and yet we get from 
the expression a better idea of the effect of the storm 
upon the shipwrecked mariner than if he had stated the 
exact height of the waA^es in feet and inches. 

46. Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which the 
speaker represents the objects of his imagination as 
actually before his eyes and present to his senses. Exam- 
ple. — "I see the dagger-crest of Mar! I see the Moray's 
silver star Wave o'er the cloud of Saxon war That up the 
lake comes winding far." 

47. Apostrophe means a turning away. It is a figure 
in which we turn from the regular course of thought, and 
instead of continuing to speak of an object in the third 
person, speak to it in the second person. Examples. — 
" O, my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom ! would 
God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son! " 
The above expression was uttered by King David, on 
hearing of the death of Absalom, his son. Another apos- 
trophe, more extended, and equally beautiful, is the lament 
of David over the death of Jonathan, found in 2 Sam. 
1: 21-27. 

48. Personification is a figure by which in imagination 
we ascribe intelligence and personality to unintelligent 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC ANSAVERS. 77 

beings or abstract qualities. Examples. — The Worm, 
aware of his intent, Harangued him thus, right eloquent." 
"Lo, steel-clad War his gorgeous standard rears!" 

49. Erotesis is a figure in which the speaker adopts 
the form of interrogation, not to express a doubt, but, in 
general, confidently to assert the reverse of what is asked. 
Example. — "Hast thou an arm like God? or canst thou 
thunder with a voice like him? " 

50. Ecphonesis is a pathetic exclamation, denoting 
some violent emotion of the mind. Example. — " O liberty! 
— O sound once delightful to every Roman ear! — O sacred 
privilege of Roman citizenship! — once sacred — now tram- 
pled upon." 

51. Antithesis consists in putting two unlike things in 
juxtaposition, so that each will appear more striking by the 
contrast. Examples. — " When our vices leave us, we flatter 
ourselves that we leave them." " The prodigal robs his 
heir, the miser robs himself." " If you wish to make a 
"man rich, study not to increase his stores, but to diminish 
his desires." 

52. Climax is a figure in which the sense is made to 
advance by successive steps, to rise gradually to what is 
more important and interesting, or to descend to what is 
more and more minute and particular. Examples. — "Then 
virtue became silent, heartsick, pined away and died." 

53. Irony is a figure in which the speaker sneeringly 
utters the direct reverse of what he intends shall be under- 
stood; as, " Go on; time is loorth nothing " — meaning that 
it is very valuable. Another example of irony is con- 
tained in the Bible where Job says (12: 2), " No doubt 
but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die with you!" 
Irony is a very effective weapon of attack, the form of the 
language being such as scarcely to admit of reply. 

54. Apophasis is the pretended suppression of what one 
is all the time actually mentioning; as, " I shall say noth- 
ing of the immorality prevalent in Paris — immorality 



78 THE examiner's COMPANION . 

which is all the more dangerous because arrayed in the 
most attractive garbs." 

55. The parallel is a figure used to show the resemblance 
between two characters or writings, to show their con- 
formity in essential points; as, the parallel between the 
Old and New Testament. 

56. Paralipsis pretends to conceal or omit what is really 
suggested and enforced. Example.— '' I anil not call him 
a villain because it would be unparliamentary." 

57. Allusion is a figure by which some word or phrase 
in a sentence calls to mind, as if accidentally, another 
similar or analogous subject. Example. — " I was sur- 
rounded with difiiculties, and possessed no clue by which 
I could effect my escape." 

58. JRepetition seizes some emphatic word or phrase, 
and, to mark its importance, makes it occur frequently in 
the same sentence. Example. — 

"He san^ Darius, great and good, 
By too severe a fate, 
Fallen, fallen, fallen, fallen, 
Fallen from his high estate, and weltering in his blood." 

59. Alliteration is the repetition of the same letter at 
the beginning of two or more words immediately succeed- 
ing each other. Example. — "The lordly lion leaves his 
lonely lair." 

60. Euphemism is a softened mode of speech for what 
would be disagreeable or offensive if told in the plainest 
language. Example. — Cushi did not say to David, "Absa- 
lom is killed; " but, " May all the enemies of the king be as 
that young man.'''' 

61. Onomatopoeia is the formation of words in such a 
manner that their sound will suggest the sense; as, buzz., 
hiss, roar. Example. — " On the ear drops the light drip 
of the suspended oar." 

62. Poetry may be defined to be the product of an 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC ANSWERS, 79 

excited and a creative imagination, with a primary object 
to please, and expressed in the form of verse. 

63. Poetry is one of the fine arts, and is thereby 
allied to music, painting, sculpture, and architecture, in all 
of which the primary object is to please. 

64. The different kinds of poetry may be conveniently 
included under the heads of epic, dramatic, lyric, elegiac, 
didactic, satiric, and pastoral. 

65. An epic poem is a poetic recital of some great and 
heroic enterprise. 

66. Epic poetry is universally admitted to be the high- 
est and most difficult kind of poetical composition. The 
number of successful epics is accordingly very limited. 
Most civilized nations have one, few have more than one. 
The three epics of greatest celebrity are Homer's Iliad in 
Greek, Virgil's uEneid in Latin, and Milton's Paradise 
Lost in English. 

67. Dramatic poetry ranks with the epic in dignity 
and excellence, and has nearly all its essential character- 
istics. 

68. Like the epic, the drama, at least in its higher 
forms, must have some great and heroic transaction for its 
subject; it must, even more than the epic, maintain unity 
in the action; it must have one leading character or hero; 
it must have some complication of plot. 

69. Modern dramas are by general custom divided 
into five acts, and each act is usually composed of several 
scenes. 

70. The two principal kinds of drama are tragedy and 
eomedy. 

71. Tragedy is more akin to the epic, being serious 
and dignified, and having for its subject some great trans- 
action. It undertakes to delineate the strongest passions, 
and to move the soul of the spectator in the highest 
degree. It is especially conversant with scenes of suffer- 
ing and violence, and ends almost uniformly with the 



80 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

death of the person or persons in whom the spectator is 
most interested. 

72. Comedy, on the other hand, aims to amuse, and 
seeks chiefly the topics of common life. It deals largely 
in ridicule and satire, and often ends in the marriage or 
other good fortune of the principal personages. 

73. A farce is a short dramatic composition, having 
for its object simply 'to excite mirth. It seldom extends 
to more than two acts, and generally consists of but a sin- 
gle act. An opera is a drama set to music, the actors 
singing the parts instead of speaking them. 

74. A melodrama is a drama in which some parts are 
spoken and some are sung. Both in opera and melodrama, 
the author seeks to produce effects by startling situations 
and gorgeous scenery and dresses, such as would be out of 
place in tragedy or comedy. 

75. Lyric poetry, as its name denotes, meant original- 
ly poetry intended to be sung to the accompaniment of 
the lyre. 

76. Lyric poetry is, in every nation, the oldest form of 
poetry known to its literature, and contains some of its 
highest specimens of the poetic art. 

77. Lyric poetry is used mainly for the expression of 
sentiment and emotion, and is thus distinguished from the 
epic, which narrates facts. It expresses the sentiments 
and emotions of the author, in his own proper person, and 
is thus distinguished from the drama, in which the author 
disappears entirely, the thoughts expressed being those of 
the persons of the drama. 

78. The most common form of lyric poetry is the ode 
or song. Odes or songs are of six kinds: Sacred, heroic, 
moral, amatory, comic, and bacchanalian. 

79. Sacred odes are usually called psalms or hymns. 
They are composed on religious subjects, and are for the 
most part addressed directly to God. 

80. Heroic odes are lyric poems celebrating the praises 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC — ANSWERS. 81 

of heroes, and are mostly occupied with martial 
exploits. "Alexander's Feast," by Dryden, is considered 
the highest specimen of this kind of composition, in the 
English language. 

81. Moral odes include a great variety of subjects, 
being used to express almost every kind of sentiment sug- 
gested by friendship, humanity, patriotism, and so forth. 
Collins's Ode on the Passions and Gray's Ode to Eton Col- 
lege are familiar to all readers. The above-mentioned 
persons are the two English writers who have most 
excelled in this species of composition. 

82. Amatory odes, more generally known as love songs, 
are numerous in all literatures. Thomas Moore probably 
has contributed more largely than any other writer to this 
particular branch of our literature. The songs of Robert 
Burns, though not so numerous as those of Moore, are less 
artificial, and show greater genius. 

83. Comic songs also have become very numerous. 
Being intended mainly for amusement, they are often 
written with great license as to their metrical construction, 
and sometimes with still greater license in regard to morals. 

84. Bacchanalian songs, as the name imports, are songs 
to be sung in honor of Bacchus, In other words, they are 
drinking songs. They are subject to still greater irregu- 
larities than the kind last named. Their object is to pro- 
mote good fellowship in drinking, and they are conse- 
quently a prolific source of drunkenness. 

85. An elegy is a poem, usually of a sad and mournful 
kind, celebrating the virtues of some one deceased. 

86. Elegiac poetry is rarely, if ever, in any other meas- 
ure than the iambic, and the most celebrated elegies known 
to our literature, such as Milton's Lycidas, and Gray's 
Elegy Written in a Country Church-Yard, are in iambic 
pentameter. The slow and stately movement of this line 
is particularly suited to the purposes of elegy. 

6 



82 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

87. An epitaph is a very short elegy, intended to be 
inscribed on a tomb or monumental tablet. 

88. Pastoral poetry means properly that which cele- 
brates shepherd or rustic life. ■ The term x>astoral is now 
applied to any poem which describes placid country-life. 

89. The pastoral poems of Virgil were called by him 
eclogues, and this term has been much used for modern 
poems of the same sort. 

90. A didactic poem is one which aims chiefly to give 
instruction. The poetry of this kind, though useful, is not 
in itself of so high an order as the others which have been 
named. Many critics, indeed, deny to compositions of 
this kind the character of poetry. 

91. If, say the critics, it is of the very essence of poetry 
that it aims to please, why should we assign this name to 
that which aims only to instruct? It may be good 
verse, but it is not poetry. Such is the objection, and it is 
not without some truth. But it is not the whole truth. 

92. A satire is a poem intended to hold up the follies 
of men to ridicule. It aims to reform men by appealing 
to their sense of shame. Satire is properly impersonal, 
exposing faults in general, rather than exposing individu- 
als. A lampoon attacks individuals. 

93. Prose is the term applied to all composition which 
is not in verse. It means the ordinary, straightforward 
manner of discourse, in distinction from the invented forms 
so common in poetry. 

94. The chief varieties of prose composition are letters, 
diaries, news, editorials, reviews, essays, treatises, travels, 
history, fiction, discourses. 

95. A letter is a written communication addressed by 
the writer to some other person or persons. 

96. The points in the form of a letter requiring atten- 
tion are the heading, the address, the subscription, and the 
superscription. 

97. The first thing to be observed in writing a 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC — ANSWERS. 83 

letter is the date or heading. This includes two points, 
namely, the place where, and the time when, the letter is 
written. 

98. In beginning a letter, we put, first of all, at the top 
of the page, the place at which the letter purports to be 
written. In this heading, all those particulars should be 
given which will be needed for addressing the reply. 

99. If the letter comes from a city, it is well for the 
heading to give the street and number, as well as the name 
of the city. These items are usually arranged in the fol- 
lowing order: The number of the house, the name of the 
street, the name of the city; thus, 1828, Pine Street, Phil- 
adelphia. 

100. If the city is a very large one, like New York or 
Philadelphia, there will be no necessity for adding the 
name of the state. But in all ordinary cases the name of 
the state should be added; thus, Easton, Pennsylvania. 

101. If the name of the state is contracted, care should 
be taken to make the contraction in such a way that what 
is meant for one state can not be mistaken for another; thus, 
Md. (Maryland) and Me. (Maine), Vt. (Vermont) and Va. 
(Virginia), in careless manuscript, are often confounded. 
New York and New Jersey should always be written out 
in full. N. Y. and N. J. are so much alike in manuscript 
that hundreds of letters every year go to Trenton, New 
York, that are meant for Trenton, New Jersey. 

102. If the town is quite small, and especially if it is 
at some distance from the place to which the letter is 
going, the name of the county should be added. This 
enables one's correspondent to address his reply in such 
a way as almost to insure its safe delivery. Sometimes a 
letter is written from a place where there is no post-oflice, 
— some small outlying settlement near the post-town. In 
such a case, if the writer wishes to designate this small 
place, he should be careful to add the post-town also; thus, 
Dutch Neck, near Bridgeton, Cumberland County, New 
Jersey. 



84 THE examinee's COMPANION. 

103. A correspondent, in replying to a letter, natur- 
ally casts his eye to the heading to see how his reply shall 
be addressed. In the forms given above he has all the 
particulars required for addressing this part of his envel- 
ope, and in exactly the order needed. 

104. These are small matters apparently, and it may 
seem like trifling to dwell upon them, but the amount of 
trouble and loss occasioned by inattention to them is incon- 
ceivable by those not familiar with the subject. 

105. It is important in every kind of letter, but espec- 
ially in business letters, to denote the time of writing, that 
is, to register the month, the day of the month, and the 
year. This date is the second thing to be given. It like- 
wise is put at the top of the page, and immediately after 
the name of the place, and the particulars are given in the 
order just named; thus, January 24, 1880. 

106. Whether the heading should all be in one line, or 
whether it should be broken into two lines, the words 
expressing the place being in one line, and those express- 
ing the time in another, is a mere matter of fancy. It is, 
in fact, a question of penmanship. If the heading is long, 
it is often broken into two lines; if short, it is generally 
given in one; thus. — 

Bursonville, Bucks Co., Penna. 

March 24, 1878. 
Easton, Maryland, April 1, 1878. 

107. Some letter- writers have a fancy for putting the 
time and place at the bottom of the letter instead of the 
top, but the custom is not to be recommended. The prac- 
tical conveniences of the ordinary method are so great 
that every one engaged in business ought to feel bound to 
conform to it. 

108. In a letter addressed by one military man to 
another, an exact form is prescribed by law. The person 
written to is addressed at the beginning of the letter 
simply bv his title, as General, Captain, Corporal, Private, 



Composition and rhetoric — answers. 85 

or whatever it may be, and without his name. Then, at 
the end of the letter, on the line below the signature of 
the writer, the name of the person addressed is given, 
with his full official title, and his location, just as it is to 
be on the envelope. 

109. The form for addressing individuals, prescribed 
in the military service, is a good basis for the rules which 
should guide us in ordinary letters. 

110. Wo begin our letters with Sir, Dear Sir, My Dear 
Sir, Rev. Sir, My Dear Dr. Smith, My Dear Lizzie, etc., 
etc., according to the relations of respect, intimacy, or 
affection existing between us and the one addressed. 
Between relatives and intimate friends these addresses 
may properly enough often assume a very familiar style, 
and may afford the opportunity for expressing tender 
affection and endearment, as well as for playfulness 
and fun. 

111. At the close of the letter, it is well, in all ordi- 
nary cases, to give the proper address with some formality. 
The address thus given at the bottom should be the same 
that is placed on the envelope. It is a safeguard against 
the letter going at any time by mistake into the wrong 
hands. The envelope is often lost or destroyed. The 
letter, therefore, should be self-identifying independently 
of the envelope. 

112. In writing business letters, the military rule above 
described is often reversed, the full address being placed 
at the beginning, instead of at the end. This method has 
many advantages, and in letters on business is to be com- 
mended. In letters of courtesy or affection, the other 
method is preferable. 

113. In closing a letter, the writer subscribes his name 
with more or less fullness, and in such terms of respect or 
affection as the circumstances may seem to warrant. 

114. These terms, like those of the address, vary of 
course according to the varying relations of the parties, 



86 THE examixer's rOMPANIO:^^. 

so that no general rule for them can be given. Business 
letters veryconiiiionly close with " Your obedient servant," 
or, if it be a firm, " Your obedient servants." 

115. Many persons, in subscribing their name, have a 
fancy for giving only the initials of their first, or given 
name; thus, R. E. Jones, J. M. Smith. No one can deter- 
mine from these signatures whether the writer is Reuben 
or Rebecca, James or Juliet, and the person addressed, 
who is often a stranger, is at a loss whether to send his 
reply to Mr. Jones or Miss Jones, to Mr. Smith or Miss 
Smith. 

116. In signing one's name to a letter, or to any other 
document, it is advisable that the name should always be so 
written as to show whether the writer is a man or a woman. 
This is particularly important in addressing a letter to a 
stranger. 

11 v. A married woman or a widow, in writing to a 
stranger, should also prefix Mrs. to her name. A married 
woman generally gives, with the Mrs., the first name of 
her husband, so long as he lives, but drops it after his 
death; thus. Yours truly, Mrs. William Southcote; Yours 
truly, Mrs. Joanna Southcote. Supposing both these to be 
written by the same person, we infer from the former that 
the writer is Mr. Southcote's wife; from the latter, that 
she is his widow. 

118. The particular terms of endearment used in the 
subscription to letters of love and friendship, will vary, 
of course, with the fancy of the writers. In general it 
may be remarked, however, that " loving" is abetter word 
than " affectionate," especially between kin. 

119. The arrangement of the subscription, as of the 
address and the heading, is a matter of penmanship rather 
than of composition. Still it may not be amiss to observe 
that the terms of respect or affection usually occupy a line 
by themselves, sometimes two lines, and the name of the 
writer occupies another line. 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC — ANSWERS. 87 

120. By the superscription of a letter is meant the 
address which is written upon the envelope. 

121. Some care in this respect is needed, both because 
correctness in the superscription is the chief means for 
securing the safe delivery of the letter, and because any 
want of propriety in the superscription is sure to attract 
criticism. What is inside of one's letter may meet the 
eye of only the most indulgent friendship, and any little 
inelegance or carelessness is sure to be forgiven. But the 
outside usually undergoes the scrutiny of many, and it is 
but a poor compliment to your friend, that what he receives 
from you through the hands of third parties should give 
them the impression that his correspondent is an ignoramus 
or a boor. 

122. The superscription of a letter, so far as the pen- 
manship goes, should be written with entire distinctness 
and legibility, with neatness and care, and with some 
attention to elegance, but never with ornamental flourishes. 

123. The superscription consists of three parts: the 
name of the person addressed, the title, and the residence. 

124. Intimate friends often have familiar pet names 
for each other, nicknames, which they use in the free 
intercourse of friendship. These may be allowable inside 
of the letter, but never outside. The name on the out- 
side should be written with formal propriety and correct- 
ness, as it would be expected to be written by an entire 
stranger. 

125. The greatest difficulty in addressing a letter is to 
know what title to give. 

126. Every one now-a-days, except among the Friends, 
has some title. A young lad usually has the prefix Master, 
and any unmarried woman the prefix Miss. Every man-ied 
woman or widow has the prefix Mrs., and every man 
who has no higher title is Mr. 

127. Medical men have the title M. D. after their 
names, and legal gentlemen that of Esquire. Others, who 



OO THE EXAMINEE S COMPANION. 

belong to neither of these professions, but who are grad- 
uates of Colleges, have some academic title after their 
names, as A. M., or Ph. D., etc. In such cases the Mr. 
before the name should be dropped. It would be ridic- 
ulous to write Mr. John Peters, Esq., Mr. Thomas Dobbs, 
M. D. In like manner, it is absurd to write John Bates, 
A. M., D. D. 

128. There is a ridiculous fashion among some ill-in- 
formed persons of appending Esq. to the name of every 
one who has no other title. It may be proper sometimes 
to address in this way a man somewhat advanced in years 
and of high social standing, who happens to have no 
special official designation; but to apply the title, as is 
often done, to boys fresh from school, to clerks and sales- 
men in stores, and to common day-laborers, is a discourteous 
and uncivil mockery. 

129.- The higher title presupposes the lower. When 
one reaches D. D., or LL. D., he drops his A. B. or his A. M. 
It is customary, however, to retain both of the two higher 
titles, D. D., LL. D., if one happens to reach them both, 
and the LL. D. in such a case is written last, as James 
McCosh, D. D., LL. D., not James McCosh, LL. D., D. D. 

130. Clergymen always have the prefix Rev., and 
Bishops that of Rt. Rev., and this is usually retained 
even where they have D. D., or some other honorary title, 
as Rev. John Maclean, D. D., LL. D. 

131. Judges, Members of Congress, and sonae other 
high officers of Govei'nment, have the prefix Honorable. 
This title prefixed to a name extinguishes the title Esquire 
after it, but not any title of special honor. It would not 
be right to say Hon. Joel Jones, Esq., but one may with 
entire propriety say Hon. Joel Jones, LL. J). 

132. Where an honorary prefix such as Rev. or Hon. 
is used, it is more respectful to give the full name, as Rev. 
William A. Butler, not Rev. Mr. Butler; Hon. Salmon P. 
Chase, not Hon. Judge Chase. 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC ANS^\^ERS. 8d 

133. The Governor of a State is usually addressed 
as His Excellency, and this is written in a separate line, 
with the full name in a second line and the official title on 
a third line. 

134. Etiquette in Washington has prescribed the 
following form in addressing the President of the United 
States: On the outside of the letter, 

To the President, 

Executive Mansion, 

Washington, D. C. 
Inside: "Mr. President, I have the honor," etc. These 
forms are the strict etiquette. Not one word more or 
less is necessary. To write "To the President of the 
United States,^'' would be surplusage. 

185. In writing upon the envelope of a letter the resi- 
dence of the person addressed, the same general rules 
should be observed which have already been given for 
writing one's own residence at the top of the letter. 

136. The only additional rule needed is that the name 
of the State should be written out in full, especially when 
the letter is to go to some other State than that in which 
it is written. 

137. There are so many towns having the same name, 
that in the haste of post-office business a letter is often sent 
to two or three diiferent places before it reaches the right 
one, and sometimes it is lost altogether. But there are 
never two post-offices of the same name in the same State, 
and the postmasters are always familiar with the loca- 
tion of all the offices in their own State. The name of 
the State being written in full, in a clear, legible hand, 
on the face of the letter, it is almost sure to go to the right 
State, and being once in the State, it is equally sure of 
reaching the right office, and by the most direct route. 

138. At a critcal moment in American affairs, (the 
time of" John Brown's raid" at Harper's Ferry,) Governor 
Wise, of Virginia, wrote an important letter to Governor 



90 ■ THE examiner's COMPANION. 

Curtin, of Pennsylvania. The letter was addressed to 
" Harrisburg, Pa." The country postmaster being natu- 
rally more familiar with the towns in his own State than 
with those farther off, and mistaking Pa. for Va., mailed 
the letter Harris[on]burg, Virginia, and before the mis- 
take was discovered, the rapid march of events had made 
the letter too late. 

139. It is proper to observe, also, that in writing the 
residence on the envelope, instead of putting it all in one 
line, as is done at the head of a letter, each item of the 
residence forms a separate line. 

140. The name and title should occupy the central 
portion of the envelope. If they are placed higher up 
than the middle, the appearance is awkward, and besides, 
a clear space above is needed for the postmark and stamp. 
If the name is written much below the middle, as young 
misses have an affected way of doing, it does not leave 
room below for writing the residence without unsightly 
crowding. 

141. It is better, both for appearance, and for prac- 
tical convenience, to let the name and title occupy a line 
that is just about central between the top of the envelope 
and the bottom. The name should not be crowded off 
to the extreme right of the envelope, as inexperienced 
persons are apt to place it, but should be placed about 
centrally between the two ends. In this manner the name 
stands out more distinctly to the eye, and it gives a 
more symmetrical appearance to the whole, if there is a 
clear space left at each end. 

142. A diary is an account made day by day of the 
events or transactions of the day. The subjects recorded 
in a diary vary, of course, with the age, sex, occupation 
and character of the diarist. It is a form of composition 
more used, perhaps, than any other for recording religious 
experience. Travelers record thus their daily adventures 
and observations. Stitdents, men of business, men of 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC — ANSWERS. 91 

pleasure even, are wont to write down from day to day 
things which interest them, or which they desire partic- 
ularly to remember. 

143. A diary is the least exact and formal of all kinds 
of composition. The primary and governing idea which 
should control the writer in its formation is, that its pages 
are meant for his own eye only. He writes an entry 
to-day in order that, some years hence, when memory 
begins to fail, he may see exactly what to-day's thoughts 
or experiences were. It is a record made for the informa- 
tion of one's future self. The first quality, therefore, in 
such a record, is that it be absolutely honest. 

144. It is essential to the honesty and truthfulness of 
a diary that the date of an entry should be that on which 
the entry is actually made. Inexperienced persons, in 
keeping a diary, sometimes omit making any record for 
several days, and then, on some day when they have leis- 
ure or inclination, make one job of it, and fill up the 
missing days from memory. This is to make the whole 
record valueless, either for themselves or for any one else. 

145. Persons who keep a diary will likewise find it of 
great value to themselves to register the place where, as 
well as the time when, each entry is made. Accuracy and 
particularity in regard to facts are indeed the essential 
points in the composition of a diary. 

146. Next to writing letters, there is, in modern times, 
no species of composition of which so much is done as 
news writing. The innumerable items which fill the news 
columns of the daily and weekly papers are enormous in 
amount, and constitute the chief reading of the public — 
the daily bread of our literary life. 

147. The literature of the news columns is not, perhaps, 
of a very high character; yet that it is a part of the liter- 
ature of the day can not well be denied, and the rules 
which should govern it ought not to be entirely ignored in 
any work professing to treat of the various kinds of com- 
position in actual use. 



9^ THE examiner's COMPANION. 

148. The chief excellencies of style to be cultivated by 
the writer of news are accuracy, condensation, and j9er5^.>/- 
cuity. The higher graces of style, such as those growing 
out of the use of rhetorical figures, lie in a different plane. 
The news writer has not the leisure for such ornaments, 
nor, if he had, would their use be in accordance with good 
taste. What the reader requires of him is simply a state- 
ment of facts, and this statement should aim at the three 
qualities just named. 

149. In the arrangement of a modern newspaper — and 
the same is true to some extent in magazines — a portion 
of the space is reserved for the expression of the opinions 
of the editor or editors, on the current topics of the day. 
The paragraphs thus written are one of the peculiar 
products of modern times, and form a noticeable species 
of prose composition. 

150. The style suited for the editorial columns is not 
only of a high order of composition, but is one peculiar to 
itself. A first-class editorial admits, indeed, of almost 
every grace and excellence of style known to rhetoric. 
But one may have, all these excellencies, may be a first- 
class writer in many other departments of literature, and 
yet not succeed as a writer of editorials. 

151. Yes. An important requisite, in a writer of edi- 
torials, is the ability rightly to conceive of himself as 
being placed in this responsible position of a public 
teacher. He must know how to use with vigor, and yet 
with discretion, a certain form of self-assertion. It is not, 
however, the mere use of "we" that makes a piece of 
composition an editorial. The best editorials employ this 
formula very sparingly, and sometimes omit it altogether. 
But the writer, in penning such articles, conceives himself 
as one set to teach. His business is to give his opinions, 
and that for the express purjjose of influencing the opin- 
ions of others. 

152. Fame, in its highest sense is rarely, if ever, 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC ANSWERS. 93 

attained by writing editorials. Yet to write editorials of 
the best class requires a degree and variety of talent, 
which, if employed in other kinds of writing, would ensure 
high and lasting fame. 

153. Reviews are of the nature of editorials, only 
much more extended. A review is a very long editorial. 
It is an article of many pages, giving the opinions of a 
monthly or quarterly magazine, instead of an article of a 
column or part of a column, giving the opinions of a 
weekly or a daily paper. 

154. The magazine, like the paper, is the organ of a 
certain set of opinions. Its office is to propagate and 
enforce those opinions, but in doing so it enters more 
largely into the details of argument and explanation. 

155. Reviews, like editorials, embrace almost every 
variety of subject. They are commonly, though not 
always, based upon some book. They sometimes examine 
the book merely, sometimes the subject treated of in the 
book, and often they discuss first the book and then some 
subject discussed in the book, or suggested by it. 

156. Essays differ in some respects from reviews. A 
review, like an editorial, expresses the opinions of some 
acknowledged representative organ, and its utterances have, 
besides their own inherent value, whatever weight of 
authority has been acquired by that organ. But an essay 
stands solely on its own merits. It is in form entirely 
impersonal, or if the author introduces himself at all, it is 
in the singular, " I," not Avith the editorial "we." 

157. An essay rarely bases its remarks upon a book. 
On the contrary, it begins usually with a subject, and if 
books are brought in at all, it is only incidentally, and by 
way of reference or quotation. Essays treat a subject in 
a more formal and systematic manner than reviews do, 
and are divided into regular numbered heads, chapters, 
sections, and so forth, which is rarely, if ever, the case 
with reviews. 



94 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

158. While there are slight differences between essays 
and reviews, there are between them many more points of 
resemblance. The difference, indeed, is in form rather 
than in substance. Substantially, a large part of the best 
reviews in the language, as for instance a majority of those 
written by Macaulay, are essays. 

159. Essays now usually appear first as contributions to 
magazines. After publication in this form, they are some- 
times collected and published in separate volumes. Mr. 
Whipple and Mr. Tuckerman have published several such 
volumes, which may be safely commended to the notice of 
any reader who desires to become acquainted with this 
class of writings. The best essays, by far, however, 
which have appeared in our recent literature, are those by 
Lowell, in a volume entitled " Among My Books." 

160. A treatise is a written discourse or composition on 
some subject, setting forth its principles in a systematic 
and orderly manner. 

161. Treatises differ from essays mainly in being more 
formal and scientific. They are more frequently divided, 
than essays are,' into regular chapters, sections, sub-sec- 
tions, and so on. 

162. Treatises are usually plain in style, rarely admit- 
ting of any kind of figures of speech, or rhetorical orna- 
ment, while essays abound in ornaments and figures, and 
give full opportunity for the use of every kind of rhetorical 
beauty, 

163. Yes. Essays more commonly refer to some of 
the fine arts, or to subjects which are not capable of, or 
have not yet been reduced to, a scientific classification; 
treatises are usually upon some definite branch of science, 
as astronomy, botany, algebra, logic, metaphysics, theology, 
and the like. 

164. Text-books, whether those for scientific reference, 
or those for study in schools and seminaries of learning, 
are treatises. This branch of literature, though not 



COMPOSITION AND RHETOKIC ANSWERS. 95 

unknown to the ancients, has received an enormous 
development in modern times, and especially within the 
last fifty years. 

165. Books of travel come nearer to diaries than to 
any other kind of writing. 

166. Books of travel usually contain a record of things 
seen or done from day to day, and in that respect are like 
diaries. But, on the other hand, travels are written, not 
to assist the memory of the writer, but avowedly for the 
information of others, and this will naturally affect the 
style. 

167. The traveler, like the diarist, is under a special 
obligation of accuracy in regard to dates, and indeed to 
facts generally. That which gives the chief value to a 
book of travel is the information which it contains. It 
tells the reader things which he can not see for himself. 
The traveler is in the witness-box, and we look to him for 
the exact truth. 

168. History holds about the same rank in prose com. 
position that the epic does in poetry. The proper office of 
the historian is to record important events for the instruc- 
tion of mankind. The fundamental qualities required of 
him, therefore, are impartiality, fidelity, and accuracy. 

169. The historian must not indeed neglect chrono- 
logical order, with a view to render his narration agreeable. 
He must give a distinct account of the dates, and of the 
coincidence of facts. But he is not under the necessity of 
breaking off always in the middle of transactions in order 
to inform us of what was happening elsewhere at the same 
time. He discovers no art, if he can not form some con- 
nection among the affairs which he relates, so as to intro- 
duce them in a proper train. He will soon tire the reader 
if he goes on recording, in strict chronological order, a 
multitude of separate transactions, connected by nothing 
else but their happening at the same time. 

170. Nothing tries an historian's abilities more, than so 



96 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

to lay his train beforehand, as to make us pass naturally 
and agreeably from one part of his subject to another; to 
employ no clumsy and awkward junctures; and to contrive 
ways and means of forming some union among transac- 
tions which seem to be most widely separated from one 
another. 

iVl. An historian that would interest us must know 
when to be concise, and when he ought to enlarge; 
passing concisely over slight and unimportant events, but 
dwelling on such as are striking and considerable in their 
nature, so pregnant with consequences; preparing before- 
hand our attention to them, and bringing them forth into 
the most full and conspicuous light. He must also attend 
to a proper selection of the circumstances belonging to 
those events which he chooses to relate fully. General 
facts make a slight impression on the mind. It is by 
means of circumstances and particulars properly chosen 
that a narration becomes interesting and affecting to the 
reader. These give life, body, and coloring to the recital 
of facts, and enable us to behold them as present and 
passing before our eyes. It is this employment of circum- 
stances in narration that is properly termed historical 
painting. 

172, .Annals are an inferior kind of history. A book 
of annals is a collection of facts arranged in strict chrono- 
logical order. Annals rather contain the materials of 
history than constitute history itself. The chief qualities 
required in a writer of annals are that he be clear, accu- 
rate, and complete. 

lYS, Memoirs also are a species of historical writing, 
though not strictly constituting history. The writer of 
memoirs does not pretend to give a complete account of 
transactions, but only to relate such portions of them as he 
himself had access to, or had something to do with. We 
do not expect from him the same profound research, or the 
same varied information, that we expect from the historian. 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC ANSWERS. 97 

174. A biography is the history of one individual. 
Biography is, therefore, a species of historical composition. 
Biography differs from history proper, not only in being 
thus limited in its range, but also in being less stately and 
formal. In this latter respect biography corresponds with 
memoirs, descending to the particulars of private life and 
to familiar incidents. 

175. Biography differs from memoirs in being com- 
plete in itself. It is no objection to memoirs that they 
are fragmentary, containing only selected portions of the 
transactions commemorated. But a biography of a man 
is expected to give his whole life, just as the history of a 
nation or of a period is expected to give its whole history. 

176. An autobiography is a memoir or biography of a 
person written by himself. 

177. A fiction is a story made up of incidents invented 
for the purpose. The names most commonly given to 
works of fiction are Novels and Romances. These terms 
are for the most part used indiscriminately, though 
romances more strictly mean a class of fiction in which 
the manners, incidents, and sentiments are of a rather 
extravagant kind. 

178. Novels are divided into two leading classes, his- 
torical and domestic. Historical novels are those in which 
the events of history are introduced, and historical per- 
sons are represented as talking and acting. The great 
mass of novels, however, are of a domestic character, the 
incidents being such as occur in private life. 

179. The novelist relies for the interest of his story, 
first and mainly, upon the curiosity of the reader. The 
incidents being of the writer's own creation, he contrives 
so to arrange them as to conceal from his readers the issue 
of the affair until the very end of the story. If the nov- 
elist were to begin his story by acquainting his readers at 
the outset with the issue of the whole, so that we should 
Icnow from the first who is to be married or killed, and how 

7 



98 THE examiner's companion. 

things generally are to turn out, which is in the main our 
condition in sitting down to read history or biography, an 
epic, or a play, it is safe to say that not one novel in a 
hundred would ever be read. 

180. The greater part of the fiction now published and 
read has no other object than mere pleasure, and that of a 
very low kind. Novels of this sort have a debasing effect 
upon the public mind. The reading of them is a mere 
mental dissipation, unfitting the reader both for reading 
of a more elevated kind, and for the active duties of life. 

181. Yes. A good many novels have a higher aim, 
being intended by their authors to disseminate theories of 
life and morals, and even of religion. Dickens' novels, 
for instance, are aimed mainly at social vices, and so effi- 
ciently has he propagated his opinions on these subjects, 
by means of his fictions, that he has created a strong public 
sentiment in favor of his social views. 

182. A discourse differs from the other kinds of com- 
position which have been described, in that it is intended 
to be read or spoken to the persons addressed, instead of 
being read by them. In an essay, a review, or a history, 
the writer prepares something which others are to read for 
themselves. In a discourse of any kind he prepares some- 
thing which he intends himself to read or speak to others. 

183. The principal kinds of discourses are ^ orations, 
addresses, sermons, lectures, and speeches. 

184. An oration is a discourse of the most formal and 
elaborate kind. It is generally in commemoration of some 
important public event, or in eulogy of some distinguished 
person, or on an occasion of some kind justifying the most 
deliberate and careful preparation. 

185. An address is a discourse nearly akin to an ora- 
tion, but somewhat less formal in character, and much less 
restricted in regard to the occasion and the subject. 

186. Perhaps, in the United States, the kind of address 
which has received the most attention is that of which we 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC ANSWERS. 99 

have annually so many examples at our "College Com- 
mencements. Not the speeches of the graduating classes 
are referred to, but those delivered before the literary 
societies of the College, and on their invitation, by gradu- 
ates of high standing in the various professions. 

187. A sermon is a formal discourse by a cleryman, 
intended for religious instruction, and founded usually on 
some passage of Scripture, Sermons are too well known 
to require further description. 

] 88. A lecture is a discourse intended primarily for 
instruction, and on any subject, secular or religious. 

lo9. Lectures may be conveniently divided into three 
different kinds, namely: 1. Those delivered in schools, 
colleges, and other institutions of learning, for the direct 
jnn-pose of instructing a class. 2. Those delivered in 
churches, usually on some week-day evening, for the pur- 
pose of religious instruction and exhortation, and less 
formal than a sermon. 3. Those delivered before a popular 
audience, on some secular subject, and intended partly to 
entertain, and partly to instruct. 

190. Every kind of discourse is in some sense a speech. 
But the term speech is often used in a special and restricted 
sense. In this sense it differs from the other kinds of 
discourse in being always intended to be spoken, while 
the others are mainly intended to be read; in not being 
intended for instruction, as the others mostly are; and in 
not being limited to any particular subject or occasion. 

191. Speeches are usually delivered extemporaneously, 
that is, they are composed at the time and in the act of 
delivery, though they may be, and often are, composed 
beforehand and committed to memory. 

192. A discourse which is to produce a profound 
impression must maintain a certain unity of subject. This 
is as important in a public discourse as it is in an epic poem. 

193. In a discourse to be read or spoken to others, we 
must, both in the subject selected and in the manner of 



100 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

treating it, have reference to the character of the persons 
addressed. 

194. Discourses differ in this respect from ordinary 
treatises, in which the author has to look at his subject 
only. A man might with propriety lecture on differential 
calculus to a company of savans, or to an advanced class 
in college, but he could hardly do so to a mixed popular 
assembly. Whoever wishes to succeed as a lecturer, or as 
a speaker of any kind, must study his audience as well as 
his subject, and adapt his discourse both to the occasion 
and the hearers. 

195. A discourse is symmetrical when it has all the 
parts belonging to such a production, and these parts are 
all in due order and correlation. 

1 96. The parts properly belonging to a formal discourse 
are: 1. The Introduction. 2. The Statement of the Sub- 
ject. 3. The Main Discourse. 4. The Conclusion. 

19Y. A formal introduction or exordium, is not always 
required. Its object, when used, is, first, to conciliate the 
good will of the hearers; secondly, to gain their attention; 
thirdly, to make them open to conviction by removing any 
prejudices or prepossessions they may have against the 
topic or the cause which we are about to present. As a 
good introduction is one of the most important, so it is 
one of the most difficult parts of a discourse. 

198. When by a good introduction a speaker has done 
what he can to gain for himself and his subject a favorable 
hearing, his next business is to state the subject of his dis- 
coin'se. The only rule to be observed in regard to this is 
that the subject should be stated in few and simple words, 
and with the utmost possible clearness. 

199. Writers on rhetoric have made here many sub- 
divisions, such as the explication or narration, the division, 
the argumentative part, and the pathetic part, and under 
each of these they have laid down almost numberless 
rules. But the utility of such rules and divisions is very 



COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC ANSWERS. 101 

much doubted. Each man must of necessity be left to 
his own judgment and powers of invention as to the best 
manner of constructing the body of his discourse. No 
two topics ordinarily are to be handled precisely alike; 
no two writers handle the same topic exactly in the same 
way ; no writer himself handles a topic in the same way 
under different circumstances. 

200. The Conclusion or Peroration of a discourse, like 
the Introduction, requires special care. The object in the 
conclusion is to leave as strong an impression as possible 
upon the minds of the audience. Sometimes this is done 
by reserving to the last the strongest part or head of the 
discourse and ending with it. Sometimes the speaker 
gives a brief and striking summary of the whole discourse. 
The main thing to be observed is to hit upon the precise 
time for bringing the discourse to a point. If this is done 
too abruptly, it leaves the hearers expectant and dissat- 
isfied. If, when the discourse seems ended and the 
hearers are looking for the close, the speaker continues 
turning round and round the point, without coming to a 
pause, the audience becomes restless and tired. There 
are, indeed, very few speakers that know how, or when, to 
stop. 




QUESTIONS. 



1. Define abduction. 

2. What are the civil remedies? 

3. Define abortion. 

4. What is an abstract of title? 

5. What can you say of an accessary? 

6. What is an accessary before the fact f 

7. Define an accessary after the fact. 

8. What is an accomplice? 

9. What is an accumulative judgment? 

10. What is an administrator? An administratrix? 

11. Define the meaning of admonition. 

12. What is an adult? 

13. Define adultery. 

14. What is an advancement? 

15. Define an afiidavit. 

16. In what manner does an afiidavit differ from a 
deposition? 

17. What is an affirmation? 

18. What is said regarding an affirmation in the 
United States? 

(102) 



LAW — QUESTIONS. 103 

19. What is said regarding an affirmation in England? 

20. What is said regarding an affirmation in France? 

21. What is the form of an affirmation? 

22. Define the term agent. 

23. What is an agreement? 

24. What is an alibi? 

25. What can be said regarding the evidence of an alibi? 

26. What is an alien? 

27. Define the term alimony. 

28. What is an ambassador? 

29. Define the word arson. 

30. What is an assault? 

31. What can you say of an assignee 

32. What is said regarding an assignment 

33. Name the proper technical words of an assignment. 

34. What can you say of an assignor? 

35. What is an atheist? 

36. What is an attachment? 

37. What is an attorney? 

38. How many kinds of attorneys are there? 

39. What is the meaning of the word hailmentf 

40. Define the terra battery. 

41. Define the term bigamy. 

42. What is a bill of exchange? 

43. What is a bill of sale? 

44. Define the term bribery 

45. What are brokers? 

46. What is the meaning of the term burden of proof f 

47. What is said of criminal cases? 

48. Define the term burglary. 

49. What is the meaning of the term caveat emptor? 

50. What is the meaning of the term certiorari'^ 

51. Define the term cAamjoeWy. 

52. What is the meaning of the word chattels? 

53. How are chattels divided? 

54. Define the term client. 



104 THE examiner"' S COMPANIOJI. 

55. What are the duties of the client towards his 
counsel? 

56. What are the rights of a client? 

57. What is a codicil? 

58. May there be more than one codicil to a will? 

59. What was formerly the difference between a will 
and a codicil? 

60. What is the meaning of collateral security? 

61. What is the meaning of collusion? 

62. Define the term consanguinity. 

63. This relation by blood is of how many kinds? 

64. What is lineal consanguinity? 

65. What is collateral consanguinity? 

66. What is the mode of computing the degrees? 

67. What is the method of computing by the civil law? 

68. What is the meaning of consequential damages? 

69. Define the term consideration. 

70. What is a good consideration? 

71. What is a valuable consideration? 

72. Define the term conspiracy. 

73. What is a contract? 

74. How are contracts divided? 

75. What is an express contract? 

76. Of how many sorts are express contracts? 

77. Define a parol contract. 

78. What is a contract by specialty or under seal? 

79. What is said of contracts of record? 

80. What are implied contracts? 

81. Define a corporation. 

82. Are the words corporation and incorporation ever 
confounded? 

83. How are corporations divided? 

84. What are public corporations? 

85. What are private corporations? 

86. How are private corporations divided? 

87. What are ecclesiastical corporations? 



LAW QUESTIONS. 105 

88. How are lay corporations divided^ 

89. What are eleemosynary corporations? 

90. How are corporations considered in another point 
of view? 

91. Define a sole corporation. 

92. Can a sole corporation take personal property in 
succession? 

93. Define an aggregate corporation. 

94. Define the term covenant 

95. What is a crime? 

96. What is an estate by the courtesy? 

97. Is this estate similar in any of its incidents to 
dower? 

98. Define the term damages. 

99. Define the term debt. 

100. What is a declaration — in pleading? 

101. Define a deed. A deed poll. 

102. Is a deed poll an agreement between two persons? 

103. What is a defaulter? 

104. Define the term demurrer. 

105. What is a deposition? 

106. What should be done before a deposition is taken? 

107. What is the meaning of descent? 

108. Define the term detinue. 

109. What is the gist of this action? 

110. What action has now taken the place of detinue? 

111. Define the term c^t'yorce. 

112. Why is it so called? 

113. What is the meaning of the term domicile? 

114. Can a man be without a domicile? 

115. Was this so by the Roman law? 

116. Can a man have two domiciles at one and the 
same time? 

117. What is a dormant pai'tner? 

118. What is the meaning of the word dower? 

119. In what way can dower be barred? 



106 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

120. Define the term easement. 

121. What is the meaning of the terra ejectment? 

122. Define the term embezzlement. 

123. Define the term emblements. 

124. What is the meaning of the term embracery? 

125. What is the meaning of the term eminent domain? 

126. What is a court of equity? 

127. What is an equity of redemption? 

128. Define an escrow. 

129. Define the word estate. 

130. What is an estate for life? 

131. What is the meaning of the word evidence? 

132. What is hearsay evidence? 

133. Define circumstantial evidence. 

134. What is an executor? 

135. Who may be executors? 

136. What is an executor de son tort? 

137. Define the word felony. 

138. What is a fixture? 

139. Define the word forgery. 

140. What is a gift? 

141. How are gifts divided? Define them. 

142. What is a grand jmy? 

143. What is a writ of habeas corpus? 

144. What is an heir? 

145. Define the term hereditaments. 

146. How are hereditaments divided? 

147. Define the term homicide. 

148. Define the term indictment. 

149. What is an injunction? 

150. What is larceny? 

151. What is meant by the term "carrying away," in 
defining larceny? 

152. Define the term law 

153. What is the meaning of law in its more confined 
sense? 



LAW QUESTIONS, 107 

154. What is a libel as here expressed? 

155. Mention a case which was held to be libelous. 

156. What is a lien? 

157. What is a writ of mandamus? 

158. Define manslaughtei*. 

159. What is one of the distinctions between man- 
slaughter and murder? 

160. Define a misdemeanor. 

161. What is said of mortgages? 

162. In equity what kinds of property may be the sub- 
ject of a mortgage? 

163. Define the word murder. 

164. What is the meaning of naturalization? 

165. Define a nuisance. 

166. How are nuisances divided? 

167. Define a public or common nuisance. A private 
nuisance. 

168. What is an oath? 

169. Define the term partnership. 

170. Define the term perjury. 

171. What is a power of attorney? 

172. Define the word quit-claim. 

173. Define the word quo-warranto 

174. What is a receipt? 

175. If a receipt be given m full of all demands is it 
positive evidence of that fact? 

176. What is a writ of replevin? 

177. Define the term robber)^ 

178. What is the meaning of the word sale? 

179. What does a valid sale require? 

180. What is a search warrant? 

181. Define the term seduction. 

182. What is the meaning of a set-off, in law? 

183. What is said of a sheriff? 

184. What are the general duties of the sheriff? 

185. Define the word slander. 



108 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

186. What is the meaning of the term stoppage in 
transitu? 

187. What is a subpcena? 

188. If a witness be subpoenaed and fail to attend court 
as commanded, what may be done? 

189. Define a subpoena duces tecum. 

190. What is a supersedeas? 

191. What is a tort? 

192. Define treason. 

193. What is the meaning of trespass? 

194. Define trover. 

195. What is usury? 

196. What is a warrant? 

197. How should a warrant be made? 

198. What is a bench warrant? 

199. Define a will or testament. 

200. How many essential requisites to make a good 
will and what are they? 

201. How are wills divided, and what is the meaning 
of a nuncupative will? 





LAW 



ANSWERS. 



1. Abduction is the carrying away of any person by 
force or fraud. This is a misdemeanor punishable by 
indictment. 

2. The civil remedies are recaption; by writ of habeas 
corpus; and an action of tresj^ass. 

3. Abortion is the premature birth or exclusion of the 
human fcetus. It, is doubtful whether the act of causing 
an abortion is an offense at common law unless the mother 
18 quick with child, on the untenable ground that life does 
not begin until that period. Tlie early statutes took the 
same distinction. Later legislation in England wholly 
discards it, and makes it a felony to procure the miscar- 
riage of a female by unlawful means at any period of her 
pregnancy. The laws of the various States in this country 
still maintain to some extent the older rule. 

4. An abstract of title is a brief account of all the 
deeds upon which the title to an estate rests. 

5. An accessory is one who is not the chief actor in 
the perpetration of the offence, nor present at its perform- 
ance, but is some way concerned therein, either before or 
after the fact committed. 

(109) 



110 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

6. An accessary before the fact, is one who being absent 
at the time of the crime committed, yet procures, coun- 
sels, or commands another to commit it. 

7. An accessary after the fact, is one who knowing a 
felony to have been committed, receives, relieves, com- 
forts, or assists the felon. 

8. The term accomplice includes in its meaning, all 
persons who have been concerned in the commission of a 
crime, all particepes criminis, whether they are considered 
in strict legal propriety, as principals in the first or second 
degree, or merely as accessaries before or after the fact. 

9. An accumulative judgment is a second or additional 
judgment given against one who has been convicted, the 
execution or effect of which is to commence after the first 
has expired; as where a man is sentenced to an imprison- 
ment for six months on conviction of larceny, and, after- 
wards, he is convicted of burglary, he may be sentenced to 
undergo an imprisonment for the latter crime, to com- 
mence after the expiration of the first imprisonment. 

10. An administrator is a person lawfully appointed, 
with his assent, by an officer having jurisdiction, to manage 
and settle the estate of a deceased person who has left no 
executor, or one who is for the time incompetent or unable 
to act. The term administratrix is applied to a woman to 
whom letters of administration have been granted. 

11. It is a reprimand from a judge to a person accused, 
on being discharged, warning him of the consequences of 
his conduct, and intimating to him, that should he be 
guilty of the same fault for which he has been admonished, 
he will be punished with greater severity. 

12. An adult, in the civil law, is an infant who, if a 
boy, has attained his full age of fourteen years, and if a 
girl, her full age of twelve. In the common law an adult 
is considered one of full age. 

13. It is a criminal conversation, between a man mar- 
ried to another woman, and a woman married to another 



LAW ANSWERS. Ill 

man, or a married and unmarried person. The married 
person is guilty of adultery, the unmarried of fornication. 

14. That which is given by a father to his child or 
presumptive heir, by anticipation of what he might inherit. 

15. An oath or affirmation reduced to writing, sworn 
or affirmed to before some officer who has authority to 
administer it. 

16. An affidavit differs from a deposition in this, that 
in the latter the opposite party has had an opportunity to 
cross-examine the witness, whereas an affidavit is always 
taken ex parte. 

IV. A solemn declaration and asseveration, which a 
witness makes before an officer competent to administer 
an oath in a like case, to tell the truth, as if he had been 
sworn. 

18. In the United States, generally, all witnesses who 
declare themselves conscientiously scrupulous against 
taking a corporal oath, are permitted to make a solemn 
affirmation, and this in all cases, as well criminal as civil. 

19. In England, laws have been enacted which partially 
relieve persons who have conscientious scruples against 
taking an oath, and authorize them to make affirmation. 

20. In France, the laws which allow freedom of relig- 
ious opinion have received the liberal construction that all 
persons are to be sworn or affirmed according to the dic- 
tates of their consciences; and a Quaker's affirmation has 
been received and held of the same effect as an oath. 

21. The form is to this effect: " You, A. B., do sol- 
emnly, sincerely, and truly declare and ^rm," etc. For 
the violation of the truth in such case, the witness is sub- 
ject to the punishment of perjury as if he had been sworn. 

22. An agent is one who undertakes to manage some 
affair to be transacted for another, by his authority, on 
account of the latter, who is called the principal^ and to 
render an account of it. 

23. An agreement is the consent of two or more per- 



112 THE examinee's COMPANION. 

sons concurring, respecting the transmission of some 
property, right or benefit, with a view of contracting an 
obligation. 

24. This is a Latin word, which signifies eUewhere. 
When a person, charged with a crime, proves that he was, 
at the time alleged, in a different place from that in which 
it was committed, he is said to prove an alibi, the effect of 
which is to lay a foundation for the necessary inference, 
that he could not have committed it. 

25. It must be admitted that mere alibi evidence lies 
under a great and general prejudice, and ought to be heard 
with uncommon caution; but if it appears to be founded 
in truth, it is the best negative evidence that can be offered; 
it is really positive evidence, which in the nature of things 
necessarily implies a negative; and in many cases, it is the 
only evidence M'hich an innocent man can offer. 

26. An alien is one born out of the jurisdiction of the 
United States, who has not since been naturalized under 
their constitution and laws. To this there are some excep- 
tions, as the children of the ministers of the United States 
at foreign courts. 

27. Alimony is the maintenance or support which a 
husband is bound to give to his wife upon a separation 
from her; or the support which either father or mother is 
bound to give to his or her children, though this is more 
usually called maintenance. 

28. A public minister sent abroad by some sovereign 
state or prince, with a legal commission and authority to 
transact business'bn behalf of his country with the govern- 
ment to which he is sent. He is a minister of the highest 
rank, and represents the person of his sovereign. 

29. Arson, at common law, is an offense of the degree of 
felony; and is defined by Lord Coke to be the malicious and 
voluntary burning of the house of another, by night or day. 

30. An assault is any unlawful attempt or offer with 
force or violence to do a corporal hurt to another, whether 



LAW — ANSWERS. 113 

from malice or wantonness; for example, by striking at 
him or even holding up the fist at hira in a threatening 
or insulting manner, or with other circumstances as denote 
at the time an intention, coupled with a present ability, of 
actual violence against bis person, as by pointing a weapon 
at him when he is within reach of it. 

31 An assignee is one to whom an assignment has been 
made. Assignees are either assignees in fact or assignees 
in law. An assignee in fact is one to whom an assign- 
ment has been made in fact by the party having the right. 
An assignee in law is one in whom the law vests the right, 
as an executor or administrator. 

32. In common parlance an assignment signifies the 
transfer of all kinds of property, real, personal, and 
mixed, and whether the same be in possession or in action; 
as, a general assignment. In a more technical sense it is 
usually applied to the transfer for a term of years; but it 
is more properly used to signify a transfer of some partic- 
ular estate or interest in lands. 

33. The proper technical words of an assignment are, 
assign, transfer, and set over; but the words grant, bar- 
gain, and sell, or any other words which will show the 
intent of the parties to make a complete transfer, will 
amount to an assignment. 

34. An assignor is one who makes an assignment; one 
who transfers property to another. In general the assignor 
can limit the operation of his assignment, and impose 
whatever condition he may think proper; but when he 
makes a general assignment in trust for the use of his 
creditors, he can impose no condition whatever which will 
deprive them of any right; nor any condition forbidden 
by law; as giving preference when the law forbids it. 

35. An atheist is one who denies the existence of God. 
As atheists have not any religion that can bind their con- 
sciences to speak the truth, they are excluded from beinj^ 
witnesses. 

8 



114 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

36. A writ issued by a court of competent jurisdiction, 
commanding the sheriff or other proper officer to seize any 
property, credit, or right, belonging to the defendant, in 
whatever hands the same may be found, to satisfy the 
demand which the plaintiff has against him. 

3 "7. An attorney is one who acts for another by virtue 
of an appointment by the latter. 

38. Attorneys are of two kinds — in fact and at law. 
An attorney in fact is an agent, though the term is com- 
monly applied to one who is authorized to act for another 
by a writing called a power of attorney. An attorney at 
law is one who is authorized by law to act in the place of 
another in the management or conduct of law proceedings. 

39. A bailment, Mr. Justice Blackstone has defined to 
be a delivery of goods in trust, upon a contract, either ex- 
pressed or implied, that the trust shall be faithfully execu- 
ted on the part of the bailee. 

40. A battery is the unlawful touching the person of 
another by the aggressor himself, or any other substance 
put in motion by him. An injury, be it ever so small, done 
to the person of another, in an angry, spiteful, rude or in- 
solent manner, as by spitting in his face, or any way touch- 
ing him in anger, or violently jostling him, are batteries in 
the eye of the law. 

41. Bigamy is the willful contracting of a second mar- 
riage when the contracting party knows that the first is 
still subsisting; or it is the state of a man who has two 
wives, or of a woman who has two husbands living at the 
same time. When the man has more than two wives, or 
the woman more than two husbands living at the same 
time, then the party is said to have committed polygamy, 
but the name of bigamy is more frequently given to this 
offence in legal proceedings. 

42. A bill of exchange is defined to be an open letter 
of request from, and order by, one person on another, to 
pay a sum of money therein mentioned to a third person, 
on demand, or at a future time therein specified. 



LAW ANSWERS. 115 

43. A bill of sale i%s an agreement in writing, under 
seal, by which a man transfers the right or interest he has 
in goods and chattels, to another. As the law imparts a 
consideration Avhen an agreement is made by deed, a bill 
of sale alters the property. 

44. Bribery is the receiving or offering any undue 
reward by or to any person whomsoever, whose ordinary 
profession or business relates to the administration of pub- 
lic justice, in order to influence liis behavior in office, and 
to incline him to act contrary to his duty and the known 
rules of honesty and integrity. 

45. Brokers are those persons who are engaged for 
others, in the negotiation of contracts, relative to property, 
with the custody of which they have no concern. 

46. This phrase is employed to signify the duty of 
proving thd facts in dispute on an issue raised between the 
parties in a cause. The burden of proof always lies on the 
party who takes the affirmative in pleading. 

47. In criminal cases, as every man is presumed to be 
innocent until the contrary is proved, the burden of proof 
rests on the prosecutor, unless a different provision is 
expressly made by statute. 

48. Burglary is the breaking and entering the house of 
another in the night time, with intent to commit a felony 
therein, whether the, felony be actually committed or not. 

49. Let the purchaser take heed; that is, let him see 
to it, that the title he is buying is good. This is a rule of 
the common law, applicable to the sale and purchase of 
lands and other real estate. If the purchaser pay the con- 
sideration money, he can not, as a general rule, recover it 
back after the deed has been executed; except in cases of 
fraud, or by force of some covenant in the deed which 
has been broken. The purchaser, if he fears a defect of 
title, has it in his power to protect himself by proper cove- 
nants, and if he fails to do so, the law provides for bii.i 
no remedy. 



116 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

50. This is the name of a writ issued from a superior 
court directed to one of inferior jurisdiction, commanding 
the latter to certify and return to the former, the record 
in the particular case, 

51. It is a bargain with a plaintiff or defendant, to 
divide the land or other matter sued for between them, if 
they prevail at law, the champertor undertaking to carry 
on the suit at his own expense. This offence differs from 
maintenance, in this, that in the latter the person assisting 
the suitor receives no benefit, while in the former he 
receives one-half, or other portion, of the thing sued for. 

52. This is a term which includes all kinds of property, 
except the freehold or things which are parcel of it. It 
is a more extensive terra than goods or effects. Debtors 
taken in execution, captives, apprentices, are accounted 
chattels. 

53. Chattels are divided into two classes, personal and 
real. Personal, are such as belong immediately to the 
person of a man; chattels real, are such as either appertain 
not immediately to the person, but to something by way of 
dependency, as a box with the title deeds of lands; or 
such as are issuing out of some real estate, as a lease of 
lands, or term of years, which pass like personalty to the 
executor of the owner. 

54. A client is one who employs and retains an attorney 
or counselor to manage or defend a suit or action in which 
he is a party, or to advise him about some legal matters. 

55. The duties of the client towards his counsel are, 
1st, to give him a written authority; 2d, to disclose his 
case with perfect candor; 3d, to offer spontaneously, 
advances of money to his attorney; 4th, he should, at the 
end of the suit, promptly pay his attorney his fees. 

56. The rights of a client are, 1st, to be diligently 
served in the management of his business; 2d, to be 
informed of its progress; and, 3d, that his counsel shall 
not disclose what has been professionally confided to him. 



LAW — ATfSWERS. 117 

57. A codicil is an addition or supplement to a will; it 
must be executed with the same solemnities. A cfxlicil is 
apart of the will, the two instruments making but one will. 

58. Yes, there may be several codicils to one will, and 
the whole will be taken as one: the codicil does not, con- 
sequently, revoke the will further than it is in opposition 
to some of its particular dispositions, unless there be 
express words of revocation. 

69. Formerly, the difference between a will and a cod- 
icil consisted in this, that in the former an executor was 
named, while in the latter none was appoint(?d. This is 
the distinction of the civil law, and adopted by the canon law. 

60. It is a separate obligation attached to another con- 
tract, to guaranty its performance. By this term is also 
meant the transfer of property or of other contracts to 
insure the performance of a principal engagement. The 
property or securities thus conveyed are also called collat- 
eral securities. 

61. An agreement between two or more persons, to 
defraud a person of his rights by the forms of law, or tc 
obtain an object forbidden by law; as, for example, where 
the husband and wife collude to obtain a divorce for a 
cause not authorized by law. 

62. Consanguinity is the relation subsisting among all 
the different persons descending from the same stock, or 
common ancestor. Some portion of the blood of the 
common ancestor flows through the veins of all his 
descendants, and though mixed with the blood flowing 
from many other families, yet it constitutes the kindred 
or alliance by blood between any two of the individuals. 

63. This relation by blood is of two kinds, lineal and 
collateral. 

64. Lineal consanguinity is that relation which exists 
among persons, where one is descended from the other, as 
between the son and the father, or the grandfather, and 
so upwards in a direct ascending line; and between the 



118 THE EXAMIKEr's COMPANION. 

father and the son, or the grandson, and so downwards in 
a direct descending line. Every generation in this direct 
course makes a degree, computing either in the ascending 
or descending line. This being the natural mode of com- 
puting the degrees of lineal consanguinity, it has been 
adopted by the civil, the canon, and the common law. 

65. Collateral consanguinity is the relation subsisting 
among persons who descend from the same common ances- 
tor, but not from each other. It is essential to constitute 
this relation, that they spring from the same common root 
or stock, but in different branches. 

66. The mode of computing the degrees is to discover 
the common ancestor, to begin with him to reckon down- 
wards, and the degree the two persons, or the more remote 
of them, is distant from the ancestor, is the degree of kin- 
dred subsisting between them. For instance, two brothers 
are related to each other in the first degree, because from 
the father to each of them is one degree. An uncle and a 
nephew are related to each other in the second degree, 
because the nephew is two degrees distant from the common 
ancestor, and the rule of computation is extended to the 
remotest degrees of collateral relationship. This is the 
mode of computation by the common and canon law. 

67. The method of computing by the civil law, is to 
begin at either of the persons in question, and count up to 
the common ancestor, and then downwards to the other 
person, calling it a degree for each person, both ascending 
and descending, and the degrees they stand from each 
other is the degree in which they stand related. Thus, from a 
nephew to his father, is one degree; to the grandfather, 
two degrees; and then to the uncle, three; which points 
out the relationship. 

68. Those damages or those losses which arise not from 
the immediate act of the party, but in consequence of such 
act; as if a man throw a log into the public streets, and 
another fall upon it and become injured by the fall; or if 



LAW — ANSWERS. 119 

a man should erect a dam over his own ground, and by 
that means overflow his neighbor's, to his injury. 

69. Consideration, in law, is the material cause of a 
contract, the reason which induces a contracting party to 
make a contract. The leading distinction respecting con- 
siderations is, that they are either good or valuable. 

70. A good consideration is based upon relationship or 
natural love, and is of avail only in an executed contract 
— e. g., a deed of land. 

71. A valuable consideration either confers some benefit 
on the promisor or causes some inconvenience or harm to 
be sustained by the promisee. Under these rules marriage 
is a valuable consideration, 

72. An agreement between two or more persons to do 
an unlawful act, or an act which may become by the com- 
bination injurious to others. 

73. Blackstone defines a contract to be an agreement, 
upon a sufficient consideration, to do or not to do a par- 
ticular thing. A contract has also been defined to be a 
compact between two or more persons. 

74. Contracts are divided into express or implied. 

75. An express contract is one where the terms of the 
agreement are openly uttered and avowed at the time of 
making, as to pay a stated price for certain goods. 

76. Express contracts are of three sorts: 1. By parol, 
or in writing, as contradistinguished from specialties. 
2. By specialty or under seal. 3. Of record. 

77. A parol contract is defined to be a bargain or vol- 
untary agreement made, either orally or in writing not 
under seal, upon a good consideration, between two or 
more persons capable of contracting to do a lawful act, 
or to omit to do something, the performance whereof is 
not enjoined by law. 

78. Those which are made under seal, as deeds, bonds, 
and the like; they are not merely written, but delivered 
over by the party bound. The solemnity and deliberation 



120 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

M'ith which, on account of the ceremonies to be observed, 
a deed or bond is presumed to be entered into, attach to it 
an importance and character which do not belong to a 
simple contract. In the case of a specialty, no consider- 
ation is necessary to give it validity. 

79. The highest kind of express contracts are those of 
record, such as judgments, recognizances of bail, and in 
England, statutes merchant and staple, and other securities 
of the same nature, entered into with the intervention of 
some public authority. 

80. Implied contracts are such as reason and justice 
dictates, and which, therefore, the law presumes every man 
undertakes to perform; as if a man employs another to do 
any business for him, or perform any work, the law 
implies that the former contracted or undertook to pay the 
latter as much as his labor is worth; or if one takes up 
goods from a tradesman, without any agreement of price, 
the law concludes that he contracts to pay their value. 

81. In the case of Dartmouth College against Wood- 
ward, Chief Justice Marshall describes a corporation to 
be " an artificial being, invisible, intangible, and existing 
only in contemplation of law." 

. 82, The words corporation and incorporation are fre- 
quently confounded, particularly in the old books. The 
distinction between them is, however, obvious, the one is 
the institution itself, the other the act by which the insti- 
tution is created. 

83. Corporations are divided into public and private. 

84. Public corporations, which are also called political, 
and sometimes municipal corporations, are those which 
have for their object the government of a portion of the 
State. 

85. In the popular meaning of the term, nearly every 
corporation is public, inasmuch as they are created for the 
public benefit; but if the whole interest does not belong 
to the government, or if the corporation is not created for 



LAW — ANSWERS. 121 

the administration of political or municipal power, the 
corporation is private. 

86. Private corporations are divided into ecclesiastical 
and lay. 

87. Ecclesiastical corporations, in the United States, 
are commonly called religious corporations; they are 
created to enable religious societies to manage with more 
facility and advantage, the temporalities belonging to the 
church or congregation. 

88. Lay corporations are divided into civil and eleemos- 
ynary. Civil corporations are created for an infinite 
vaj-iety of temporal purposes, such as affording facilities 
for obtaining loans of money; the making of canals, turn- 
pike roads, and the like. And also such as are established 
for the advancement of learning. 

89. Eleemosynary corporations are such as are instituted 
upon a principle of charity, their object being the perpetual 
distribution of the bounty of the founder of them, to 
such persons as he has directed. Of this kind are hospitals 
for the relief of the impotent, indigent and sick, or deaf 
and dumb. 

90. Corporations, considered in another point of view, 
are either sole or aggregate. 

91. A sole corporation, as its name implies, consists of 
only one person, to whom and his successors belongs that 
legal perpetuity, the enjoyment of which is denied to all 
natural persons. Those corporations are not common in 
the United States. 

92. No. A sole corporation cannot take personal 
property in succession; its corporate capacity of taking 
property is confined altogether to real estate. 

93. An aggregate corporation consists of several per- 
sons, who are united in one society, which is continued by 
a succession of members. Of this kind are the mayor or 
commonalty of a city; the heads and fellows of a college; 
the members of trading companies and the like. 



122 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

94. Covenant is the name of an action instituted for 
the recovery of damages for the breach of a covenant or 
promise under seal. 

95. A crime is any act done in violation of those 
duties which an individual owes to the community, and 
for a breach of which the law has provided that the 
offender shall make satisfaction to the public. 

96. This is an estate which a husband takes in the 
lands of inheritance belonging to his wife in case she dies 
before him and there was a child born alive during the 
marriage. It is an estate for his own life, and after his 
death the land reverts to the wife's lawful heirs. When 
the child is born the husband is said to have a tenancy by 
the courtesy initiate^ upon the death of the wife, a tenancy 
by the courtesy consurnmate. It is not necessary that the 
child should live if it be once born alive. 

97. Yes. This estate is similar in many of its inci- 
dents to dower, but it differs in this respect, that it per- 
tains to the whole of the wife's lands in which she had an 
estate of inheritance during coverture, and not merely to 
a third thereof, as in dower. No assignment of the lands 
to the husband is therefore necessary, and he becomes 
tenant at once upon the wife's death. 

98. The indemnity given by law, to be recovered from 
a wrong-doer by the person who has sustained an injury, 
either in his person, property, or relative rights, in conse- 
quence of the acts of another. 

99. A sum of money due by certain and express agree- 
ment. In a less technical sense, it means any claim for 
money. In a still more enlarged sense, it denotes any 
kind of a just demand; as, the debts of a bankrupt. 

100. A declaration is a specification, in a methodical 
and logical form, of the circumstances which constitute 
the plaintiff's cause of action. 

101. A deed is a writing or instrument, under seal, 
containing some contract or agreement, and which has been 



LAW ANSWERS. 



123 



delivered by the parties. A deed made by one party only 
is not indented, but polled or shaved quite even, and is, 
for this renson, called a deed poll, ox single deed. 

102. A deed poll is not, strictly speaking, an agree- 
ment between two ])ersons; but a declaration of some one 
particular person, respecting an agreement made by him 
with some other person. 

103. A defaulter is a person who fails to perform a 
public duty; an office-holder who embezzles public money 
or fails to account for money entrusted to his keeping. 
His offence is called defalcation. 

104. A demurrer, in pleading, imports, according to its 
etymology, that the objecting party will not proceed with 
the pleading, because no sufficient statement has been 
made on the other side; but will wait the judgment of 
the court whether he is bound to answer. 

105. The testimony of a witness reduced to writing, 
in due form of law, taken by virtue of a commission or 
other authority of a competent tribunal. 

106. Before a deposition is taken, the witness ought 
to be sworn or affirmed to declare the truth, the whole 
truth, and nothing but the truth. A deposition should be 
written by one not interested in the matter in dispute, and 
who is properly authorized by the commissioner. 

107. Descent is the title, whereby a person, upon the 
death of his ancestor, acquires the estate of the latter, as 
his heir at law. This manner of acquiring title is directly 
opposed to that of purchase. 

108. Detinue is the name of an action for the recovery 
of a personal chattel in specie. 

109. The gist of the action is the wrongful detainer, 
and not the original taking. The possession must have 
been acquired by the defendant by lawful means, as by 
delivery, bailment, or finding, and not tortiously. 

110. The action of detinue has now yielded to the 
more practical and less technical action of trover. 



124 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

111. It is the dissolution of a marriage contracted 
between a man and a woman, by the judgment of a court 
of competent jurisdiction, or by an act of the legislature. 

112. It is so called from the diversity of the minds of 
those who are married; because such as are divorced go 
each a different way from the other. 

113. Domicile is the place where a person has fixed 
his ordinary dwelling, without a present intention of 
removal. 

114. No, a man can not be without a domicile, for he is 
not supposed to have abandoned his last domicile until he 
has acquired a new one. 

115. By the Roman law a man might abandon his 
domicile, and, until he acquired a new one, he was without, 
a domicile. 

116. By fixing his residence at two different places a 
man may have two domiciles at one and the same time; 
as, for example, if a foreigner, coming to this country, 
should establish two houses, one in New York, and the 
other in New Orleans, and pass one-half of the year in 
each; he would for most purposes, have two domiciles. 

11 7. A dormant partner is one who is a participant in 
the profits of a firm, but his name being concealed, his 
interest is not apparent. 

118. Dower, in the common law of England, is an 
estate for life which a widow has in one-third part of all 
the lands and tenements of which her husband was seized 
beneficially, or of an estate of inheritance at any time 
during the marriage, 

119. Dower can in general be barred only by the wife's 
ojvn act, as by joining in a conveyance with the husband, 
or by a jointure settled before marriage, etc. The hus- 
band often in his will, either expressly or by implication, 
gives his wife property in lieu of dower. In this case she 
may, after his death, elect to take such property or her 
iower, but can not take both. 



LAW — ANSWERS. 125 

120. An easement is defined to be a liberty, privilege 
or advantage, which one man may have in the lands of 
another, without profit; it may arise by deed or prescription. 

121. Ejectment is the name of an action which lies for 
the recovery of the possession of real property, and of 
damages for the unlawful detention. In its nature it is 
entirely different from a real action. 

122. Embezzlement is the fraudulently removing and 
secreting of personal property, with which the party has 
been entrusted, for the purpose of applying it to his own use. 

123. By this term is understood the crops growing 
upon the land. By crops is here meant the products of the 
earth which grow yearly and are raised by annual expense 
and labor, or "great manurance and industry," such as 
grain; but not fruits which grow on trees which are not to be 
planted yearly, or grass, and the like, though they are annual. 

124. Embracery is an attempt to corrupt or influence a 
jury, or any way incline them to be more favorable to 
the one side than to the other, by money, promises, threats, 
or persuasions; whether the juror on whom such attempt 
is made give any verdict or not, or whether the verdict be 
true or false. 

125. The right which the people or government retain 
over the estates of individuals, to resume the same for 
public use. It belongs to the legislature to decide what 
improvements are of sufficient importance to justify the 
exercise of the right of eminent domain. 

126. A court of equity is one which administers jus- 
tice, where there are no legal rights, or legal rights, but 
courts of law do not afford a complete remedy, and where 
the complainant has also an equitable right. 

127. It is a right which the mortgagee of an estate has 
of redeeming it, after it has been forfeited at law by the 
non-payment at the time appointed of the money secured 
by the mortgage to be paid, by paying the amount of the 
debt, interest and costs. 



126 THE examinee's companion. 

128. An escrow is a conditional delivery of a deed to 
a stranger, and not to the grantee himself, until certain 
conditions shall be performed, and then it is to be delivered 
to the grantee; until the condition be performed and 
the deed delivered over, the estate does not pass, but 
remains in the grantor. 

129. The word estate has several meanings: 1. In its 
most extensive sense, it is applied to signify everything of 
which riches or fortune may consist, and includes personal 
and real property; hence we say personal estate, real 
estate. 2. In its more limited sense, the word estate is 
applied to lands. 

130. An estate for life is a freehold interest in lands, 
the duration of which is confined to the life or lives of 
some particular person or persons, or to the happening or 
not happening of some uncertain event. 

131. Evidence is that which is legally submitted to a 
jury, to enable them to decide upon the questions in dis- 
pute or issue, as pointed out by the pleadings and distin- 
guished from all comment or argument. 

132. Hearsay evidence is the evidence of those who 
relate, not what they know themselves, but what they have 
heard from othei's. 

133. It is the proof of facts which usually attend other 
facts sought to be proved. For example, when a witness 
testifies that a man was stabbed with a knife, and that a 
piece of the blade was found in the Avound, and it is found 
to tit exactly with another part of the blade found in the 
possession of the prisoner; the facts are directly attested, 
but they only prove circumstances, and hence this is called 
circumstantial evidence. 

134. The word execiftor, taken in its largest sense, has 
several acceptations. As the term is at present accepted, 
an executor is the person to whom tlie execution of a last 
will and testament of personal estate is, by the testator's 
appointment, confided, and who has accepted of the same. 



LAW ANSWERS. 



127 



135. Generally speaking, all persons who are capable 
of making wills may be executors, and some others beside, 
as infants and married women. 

1 36. An executor dc son tort is one who interferes with 
the goods of a deceased person without lawful authority. 
He has the trouble of an executor without the advantages. 
He may be sued as executor if any assets have come into 
his hands, but cannot bring an action as executor. 

137. Felony is an offence which occasions a total for- 
feiture of either lands or goods, or both, at common law, 
to which capital or other punishment may be superadded, 
according to the degree of guilt. 

138. A fixture is an article or structure which, in itself 
personal property, has been made an annexation or become 
accessory to real estate. Annexations of this nature, when 
made under certain conditions and circumstances, still 
continue to be considered chattels, while in a different 
class of cases they are regarded as constituting a part of 
the realty, merely as a result of the change that has been 
effected in their situation and relations. 

139. Forgery at common law has been held to be "the 
fraudulent making and alteration of a writing to the preju- 
dice of another man's right." 

1 40. An act by which the owner of a thing, voluntarily 
transfers the title and possession of the same, from himself 
to another person who accepts it, without any consideration. 
It differs from, a grant, sale, or barter in this, that in each 
of these cases there must be a consideration, and a gift, as 
the definition states, must be without consideration. 

141. Gifts are divided into gifts inter vivos, and gihs 
causa mortis. The former is a gift made from one or 
more persons, without any prospect of immediate death, 
to one or more others. The latter is a gift bestowed in 
anticipation of the donor's death. 

142. A grand jury is a body of men consisting of not 
less than twelve nor more than twenty-four, respectively, 



128 THE examinee's COMPANION. 

returned by the sheriff of every county to every session of 
the peace, oyer and terminer and general gaol delivery, to 
whom indictments are preferred. 

143. A writ of habeas corpus is an order in writing, 
signed by the judge who grants the same, and sealed with 
the seal of the court of which he is a judge, issued in 
the name of the sovereign power where it is granted, by 
such a court or a judge thereof, having lawful authority to 
issue the same, directed to any one having a person in his 
custody or under his restraint, commanding him to pro- 
duce such person at a certain time and place, and to state 
the reasons why he is held in custody, or under restraint. 

144. An heir is one born in lawful matrimony, who 
succeeds by descent, and right of blood, to lands, tene- 
ments or hereditaments, being an estate of inheritance. It 
is an established rule of law, that God alone can make an 
heir. 

145. Hereditaments are anything capable of being 
inherited, be it corporeal or incorporeal, real, personal, or 
mixed, and including not only lands and everything 
thereon, but also heirlooms, and certain furniture which 
by custom, may descend to the heir, together with the land. 

146. Hereditaments are divided into corporeal and 
incorporeal. Corporeal hereditaments are confined to 
lands. Incorporeal hereditaments are rights issuing out 
of, or annexed unto a thing corporeal. 

147. According to Sir William Blackstone, homicide is 
the killing of any human creature. This is the most 
extensive sense of this word, in which the intention is not 
considered. But in a more limited sense, it is always 
understood that the killing is by human agency, and Haw- 
kins defines it to be the Killing of a man by a man. 

148. An indictment is a written accusation of one or 
more persons of a crime or misdemeanor, presented to, 
and preferred upon oath or afiirraation, by a grand jury 
legally convoked. 



LAW — ans^t:ks. ' 129 

149. An injunction is a prohibitory writ, specially 
prayed for by a bill, in which the plaintiff's title is set 
forth, restraining a person from committing or doing an 
act (other than criminal acts) which appear to be against 
equity and conscience. 

150. Larceny is the wrongful and fraudulent taking 
and carrying away, by one person, of the mere personal 
goods of another, from any place, with a felonious intent 
to convert them to his, the taker's use, and make them his 
property, without the consent of the owner. 

151. There must be an «c^«o/ " carrying away," but 
the slightest removal, if the goods are completely in the 
power of the thief, is sufficient. To snatch a diamond 
from a lady's ear, which is instantly dropped among the 
curls of her hair,is a sufficient asportation or "carrying away." 

152. In its most general and comprehensive sense, law 
signifies a rule of action; and this term is applied indis- 
criminately to all kinds of action; whether animate or 
inanimate, rational or irrational. 

153. In its more confined sense, law denotes the rule, 
not of actions in general, but of human actions or conduct. 
In the civil code of Louisiana, Art. 1, it is defined to be 
" a solemn expression of the legislative will." 

154. It is a malicious defamation expressed either in 
printing or writing, or by signs or pictures, tending to 
blacken the memory of one who is dead, with intent to 
provoke the living; or the reputation of one who is alive, 
and to expose him to public hatred, contempt, or ridicule. 

155. The case of Villars v. Monsley, 2 Wils., 403, was 
grounded upon the following verses, which were held to 
be libelous, namely: — 

"Old Villars, so strong of brimstone you smell, 
As if not long since you had got out of hell, 
But this damnable smell I no longer can bear, 
Therefore I desire you would come no more here; 
You old stinking, old nasty, old itchy, old toad. 
If you come any more you shall pay for your board 
9 



130 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

You'll therefore take this as a warning from me, 
And never enter the doors, while they belong to J. P. 
Wilncot, Dec. 4, 1767." 

156. In its most extensive signification, this term 
includes every case in which real or personal property is 
charged with the payment of any debt or duty; every such 
charge being denominated a lien on the property. In a 
more limited sense it is defined to be a right of detaining 
the property of another until some claim be satisfied. 

157. It is a command issuing in the name of the sover- 
eign authority from a superior court having jurisdiction, 
and is directed to some person, corporation, or inferior 
court, within the jurisdiction of such superior court, requir- 
ing them to do some particular thing therein specified, 
which appertains to their office and duty, and which the 
superior court has previously determined, or at least sup- 
poses to be consonant to right and justice. 

158. Manslaughter is the unlawful killing of another 
without malice, either express or implied. 

159. One of the distinctions between manslaughter and 
murder is as follows: In the former, though the act which 
occasions the death be unlawful, or likely to be attended 
with bodily* mischief, yet the malice, either express or 
implied, which is the A'ery essence of murder, is presumed 
to be wanting in manslaughter. 

160. A misdemeanor expresses every offence inferior 
to felony, punishable by indictment, or by particular 
prescribed proceedings. In its usual acceptation, it is 
applied to all those crimes and offences for which the law 
has not provided a particular name; this word is generally 
used in contradistinction to felony; misdemeanors com- 
prehending all indictable offenses, which do not amount to 
felony, as jserjury, battery, libels, conspiracies and public 
nuisances. 

161. Mortgages are of several kinds: as they concern 
the kind of property mortgaged, they are mortgages 



LAW ANSWERS. 131 

of lands, tenements, and hereditaments, or of goods and 
chattels; as they affect the title of the thing mortgaged, 
they are legal and equitable. 

162. In equity all kinds of property, real or personal, 
which are capable of an absolute sale, may be the subject 
of a mortgage; rights in remainder and reversion, 
franchises, and choses in action, may, therefore, be mort- 
gaged. But a mere possibility or expectancy, as that of 
an heir, can not. 

163. Murder, one of the most important crimes that 
can be committed against individuals, has been defined as 
follows: Hawkins says it is the willful killing of any sub- 
ject whatever, with malice aforethought, whether the per- 
son slain shall be an Englishman or a foreigner. Sir 
Edwai'd Coke defines, or rather describes this offence to 
be, " when a person of sound mind and discretion, unlaw- 
fully killeth any reasonable creature in being, and under 
the king's peace, with malice aforethought either express 
or implied." 

164. Naturalization is the act by which an alien is 
made a citizen of the United States of America. 

165. This word means literally annoyance; in law, it 
signifies, according to Blackstone, "anything* that worketh 
hurt, inconvenience, or damage." 

166. Nuisances are divided into either public or com- 
mon, or private nuisances. 

167. A public or common nuisance is such an incon- 
venience or troublesome offence, as annoys the whole com- 
munity in general, and not merely some particular jierson. 
A private nuisance is anything done to the hurt or annoy- 
ance of the lands, tenements, or hereditaments of another. 

168. An oath is a declaration made according to law, 
before a competent tribunal or officer, to tell the truth; 
or it is the act of one who, when lawfully required to tell 
the truth, takes God to witness that what he says is true. 
It is a religious act by which the party invokes God not 



132 THE examinee's COMPANION. 

only to witness the truth and sincerity of his promise, but 
also to avenge his imposture or violated faith, or in other 
words to punish his perjury if he shall be guilty of it. 

169. Partnership is an agreement between two or more 
persons, for joining together their money, goods, labor 
and skill, or either or all of them, for the purpose of 
advancing fair trade, and of dividing the profits and losses 
arising from it, proportionably or otherwise, between them. 

1 70. This offence at common law is defined to be a 
willful false oath, by one Avho being lawfully required to 
depose the truth in any judicial proceedings, swears abso- 
lutely in a matter material to the point in question, whether 
he be believed or not. 

l^l. A power of attorney is a written instrument by 
the terms of which the person executing it constitutes 
another his agent or attorney, and authorizes such agent 
to perform the act or acts therein named in his name and 
on his behalf. 

172. Quit-claim is a word often employed in deeds in 
which the grantor or seller undertakes no responsibility in 
regard to the validity of his own assumed right to the 
property in question, but merely Conve3^s to the grantee or 
buyer his own interest, whether valid or the reverse. 

173. Quo-warranto is the name of a writ issued in the 
name of a government against any person or corporation, 
that usurps any franchise or oflUce, commanding the sheriff 
of the county to summon the defendant to be and appear 
before the court whence the writ issued, at a time and 
place therein named, to show " quo warranto " he claims 
the franchise or ofiice mentioned in the writ. This writ 
has become obsolete, having given way to informations in 
the nature of a quo-warranto at the common law. 

174. A receipt is an acknowledgment in writing, that 
the party giving the same has received from the person 
therein named, the money or other thing therein specified. 

175. No. Although expressed to be in full of all 



LAW — ANSWERS. 133 

demands, It is or\\j prima facie evidence of what it pur- 
ports to be, and upon satisfactory proof being made that 
it was obtained by fraud, or given either under a mistake 
of facts or an ignorance of law, it may be inquired into and 
corrected in a court of law as well as in equity. 

176. A writ of replevin is the name of an action for 
the recovery of goods and chattels. To support replevin, 
the property affected must be a personal chattel, and not 
an injury to the freehold, or to any matter which is annexed 
to it. 

lYV. Robbery is the felonious and forcible taking from 
the person of another, goods or money to any value, by 
violence or putting him in fear. 

178. A sale is a transfer of goods from one person to 
another for a price in money. It is therefore to be dis- 
tinguished from barter, which is an exchange of one com- 
modity for another, and not for money. 

179. A valid sale requires all the elements essential 
in other contracts; there must be parties capable to con- 
tract, a mutual assent to the terms of the agreement, a 
sufficient consideration, and a thing or property to be sold. 
If the transfer be made without a valuable consideration, 
it is a gift and not a sale. 

180. It is a warrant requiring the officer to whom it is 
addressed, to seai'ch a house or other place therein 
specified, for property therein alleged to have been stolen; 
and if the same shall be found upon such search, to bring 
the goods so found, together with the body of the person 
occupying the same, who is named, before the justice or 
other officer granting the warrant, or some other justice 
of the peace, or other lawfully authorized officer. It should 
be given under the hand and seal of the justice, and dated. 

181. Seduction is the offence of a man who abuses the 
simplicity, and confidence of a woman to obtain by false 
promises what she ought not to grant. 

182. Set-off is a demand which a defendant makes 



134 THE examinee's companion. 

against the plaintiff in the suit for the purpose of liqui- 
dating the whole or a part of his claim. A set-off was 
unknown to the common law, according to which mutual 
debts were distinct and inextinguishable except by actual 
payment or release. 

183. Sheriff is the name of the chief officer of the 
county. In Latin he is called vice comes, because in Eng- 
land he represents the comes or earl. His name is said to 
be derived from the Saxon seyre, shire or county, and reve, 
keeper, bailiff, or guardian. 

] 84. The general duties of the sheriff are, 1st. To keep 
the peace within the county; he may apprehend, and com- 
mit to prison all persons who break the peace or attempt 
to break it, and bind any one in a recognizance to keep the 
peace. He is required ex officio, to pursue and take all 
traitors, murderers, felons, and rioters. He has the keep- 
ing of the county gaol, and he is bound to defend it 
against all attacks. He may command the posse com,itatus. 

185. Slander is the defaming of a man in his reputa- 
tion by speaking or writing words which affect his life, 
office, or trade, or which tend to his loss of preferment in 
marriage or service, or in his inheritance, or which occa- 
sion any other particular damage. 

186. This is the name of that act of a vendor of goods, 
upon a credit, who, on learning that the buyer has failed, 
resumes the possession of the goods, while they are in the 
hands of a carrier or middle-man, in their transit to the 
buyer, and before they get into his actual possession. 

187. A subposna is a process to cause a witness to 
appear and give testimony, commanding him to lay aside 
all pretences and excuses, and appear before a court or 
magistrate therein named, at a time therein mentioned, to 
testify for the party named, under a penalty therein men- 
tioned. This is usually called a suhpwna ad testificandxim,. 

188. On proof of service of a subpoena upon the wit- 
ness, and that he is material, an attachment may be issued 



LAW ANSWERS. 



135 



against him for a contempt, if he neglect to attend as 
commanded. 

189. It is a writ or process of the same kind as the 
mhpmna ad testificandum, including a clause requiring 
the witness to bring with him and produce to the court, 
books, papers, etc., in his hands, tending to elucidate the 
matter in issue. 

. 190. A supersedeas is the name of a writ containing a 
command to stay the proceedings at law. It is granted on 
good cause shown that the party ought not to proceed. 
There are some writs which though they do not bear this 
name have the effect to supersede the proceedings, namely, 
a writ of error, when bail is entered, operates as a super- 
sedeas, and a writ of certiorari to remove the proceedings 
of an inferior into a superior court has, in general, the 
same effect. 

191. A tort is an injury; a wrong; hence the expression 
an executor de son tort, of his own wrong. Torts may be 
committed with force, as trespasses, which may be an 
injury to the person, such as assault, battery, imprison- 
ment; to the property in possession; or they may be com- 
mitted without force. Torts of this nature are to the 
absolute or relative rights of persons, or to personal 
property in possession or reversion, or to real property, 
corporeal or incorporeal, in possession or reversion; these 
injuries may be either by nonfeasance, malfeasance, or 
misfeasance. 

192. Treason imports a betraying, treachery, or breach 
of allegiance. The constitution of the United States 
defines treason against the United States to consist only in 
levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, 
giving them aid or comfort. This offence is punished 
with death, 

193. Trespass is an unlawful act committed with vio- 
lence, vi et armis, to the person, property or relative rights 
of another. Every felony includes a trespass; in common 



136 THE EXAMINEe''S companion. 

parlance, such acts are not in general considered as tres- 
passes, yet they subject the offender to an action of trespass 
after his conviction or acquittal. 

194. Trover signifies finding. The remedy is called 
an action of trover; it is brought to recover the value of 
personal chattels, wrongfully converted by another to his 
own use; the form supposed that the defendant might 
have acquired the possession of the property lawfully, 
namely, by finding, but if he did not, by bringing the 
action the plaintiff waives the trespass; no damages can 
therefore be recovered for the taking, all must be for the 
conversion. 

195. Usury is the illegal profit which is required and 
received by the lender of a sum of money from the bor- 
rower, for its use. In a more extended and improper 
sense, it is the receipt of any profit whatever for the use 
of money. 

196. A warrant is a writ issued by a justice of the 
peace or other authorized ofiicer, directed to a constable or 
other proper person, requiring him to arrest a person 
therein named, charged with committing some offence, and 
to bring him before that or some other justice of the peace. 

197. A warrant should regularly be made under the 
hand and seal of the justice, and dated. No warrant 
ought to be issued except upon the oath or affirmation of a 
witness charging the defendant with the offence. The 
reprehensible practice of issuing blank warrants which 
once prevailed in England, was never adopted here. 

198. Bench warrant is the name of a process some- 
times given to an attachment issued by order of a criminal 
court, against an individual for some contempt, or for the 
purpose of arresting a person accused; the latter is seldom 
granted unless when a true bill has been found. 

199. A will or testament is the legal declaration of a 
man's intentions of what he wills to be performed after 
his death. The terms will and testament are synonymous, 



LAW AKSWEKS. 137 

and they are used indifferently by eorfiYnoYi lawyers, or 
one for the other. Civilians use the term testament only. 

200. There are five essential requisites to make a good 
will: ]. The testator must be legally capable of making 
a will. 2. The testator at the time of making his will 
must have animuni testandi, or a serious intention to make 
such will. 8. The mind of the testator in making his will 
must be free, and not moved by fear, fraud or flattery. 

4. There must be a person to take, capable of taking. 

5. The will must be put in proper form. 

201. Wills are divided into either written or mmcu- 
pative. A nuncupative will or testament, is a verbal 
declaration by a testator of his will before a competent 
number of legal witnesses. Before the statute of tYauds 
they were very common, but by that statute, which has 
been substantially adopted in a number of the states, these 
wills were laid under many restrictions. In New York 
nuncupative wills have been abolished, except made by a 
soldier while in actual military service, or by a mariner 
while at sea. 




AMERICAN LITERATURE. 




Poe.— Edgar Allen Poe, a much esteemed poet, was 
born at Baltimore, Maryland, in 1811, and died in an hos- 
pital of his native city, after a restless wandering life in 
1849, Mr. Poe had fine natural talent, and received a 
good education, but threw away all his advantages, and 
shortened his life by his immoral and drunken habits. He 
has left a volume of Tales and one of Poems, which were 
contributed to periodicals, and which display singular 
power of imagination, a quick sense of the beautiful, 
much humor, and great command of impressive and also 
musical language. His two short poems. The Raven and 
The Bells, are unique and unsurpassed in their kind. A 
tender lament for his dead wife, entitled Annabel Lee, is 
one of the sweetest lyrics in the language. Wild and 
absorbing interest abounds in all his prose tales. In an 
essay on The Rationale of Verse, he describes skillfully 
and minutely the process of his own mind in the creation 
of The Raven. Poe's complete works have been published 
in four volumes. 

Payne.— John Howard Payne, a~ poet, actor, and 
dramatist, was born in New York City, in 1792. In his 
thirteenth year he was a writer for the press, and editor 

fl38) 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 139 

of the Thespian Mirror. At sixteen he appeared as 
Norval in Uouglass, at the Park Theatre, New York. At 
Boston he appeared, among other characters, in those of 
Hastings, Holla, Edgar and Hamlet. In 1812 he went to 
England, and made his debut atDrury Lane, in his twenty- 
first year. In 1826 he edited a London dramatic paper 
called The Opera Glass. A great numher of dramas were 
prepared by him when on the London stage, chiefly adap- 
tations from the French, and in some of them Charles 
Kemble appeared. The air of Home, Sweet Home, an 
exceedingly popular song, and the one by which Payne is 
best remembered, appeared in his Clari, the Maid of 
Milan. In his later years he occupied the post of consul 
of the United States at Tunis, where he died in 1852. In 
1883 Payne's remains were removed from Tunis to the 
United States and interred in Oak Hill Cemetery, George- 
town, D. C. 

Whittier.— John Greenleaf Whittier, who may be 
classed among the poets, was born at Haverhill, Massa- 
chusetts, in 180*7. Commencing at the age of eighteen, 
he studied for two years at a local academy. In 1830 he 
became editor of the JSTew England Review at Hartford, 
Connecticut, where he wrote a Life of Brainard and 
Legends of New England. Returning from his literary 
labors to his farm, he was, in 1835, elected to the Massa- 
chusetts legislature; and, in 1836, became editor of the 
Pennsylvania Freeman in Philadelphia. In 1840 he 
removed to Amesbury, Massachusetts, and has since 
devoted himself to literature and philanthropy. His chief 
writings are: Voices of Freedom; Leaves from Margaret 
Smith's Journal; Old Patriots and Modern Sketches; Col. 
lected Poems; Songs of Labor ; The Chapel of the Hermits; 
Literary Recreations', The Panorama; HomePallads; and 
The Tent 07i the Beach. Whittier is frequently called the 
Quaker Poet. 

JLongfellow.— Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, LL. D., 



140 THE examinee's companion. 

a distinguished American poet, was born at Portland, 
Maine, in 1807, and departed this life at Boston, in 1882. 
Young Henry graduated from Bowdoin College, in his 
native State, in 1825. After leaving college he entered 
his father's law office, but after a few months of study he 
abandoned Blackstone and Kent, and commenced the 
study of literature. In 1838 he entered upon the chair of 
languages and the belles lettres at Harvard University. 
One year later he made his dehiit as an author with his 
romance called Hyj^erion, and tlie collection of poems 
bearing the title of Voices of the Night. The latter at 
once placed him in the front rank of American bards. 
His literary career thenceforward was a series of triumphs. 
It would be difficult to praise one thing above another 
where all are excellent — suffice it that in this sketch men- 
tion is merely made of his later and chief productions; 
viz., the drama of the Spanish Student (1843); Evangeline 
(1847); The Golden Legend (1851); The Song of Hiawatha 
(1855); The Courtship of Miles Standish (1858); a mas- 
terly translation of the Divine Co^nedy of Dante (1867); 
Hanging of the Crane (1874); and lieramos (1878). 

Bryant.— William Cullen Bryant, an eminent poet 
and journalist, was born at Cummington, Massachusetts, 
in 1794, and died in New York City, in 1878. He evinced 
such precocious talents as to produce in his fourteenth 
year two poems — the Embargo, a political satire, and the 
Spanish Revolution, which passed into a second edition in 
1809. In his nineteenth year, Thanat02)sis was given to 
the world, and secured his reputation. In 1826, he asso- 
ciated himself with the JSfew York Evening Post, of 
which he eventually became chief editor and proprietor. A 
complete edition of his poems, published in New York in 
1832, was immediately reprinted in England. His Popular 
History of the United States appeared in 1874. A biography 
of "William Cullen Bryant, by his son-in-law, Parke Godwin, 
was published by the Messrs. Appleton in 1883. 



AMEEICAN LITEKATUKE. 141 

Holmes.— Oliver Wendell Holmes, an eminent poet, 
physician, and man of letters, was born at Cambridge, 
Massachusetts, in 1V09. After graduating at Harvard 
College in 1829, he studied law and medicine, receiving 
his medical degree in 1836. In this last mentioned year 
Dr. Holmes made his maiden effort in the world of letters, 
with a volume of Poems, which proved an encouraging 
venture. He also wrote Currents and Counter- Currents ; 
Songs in Many Keys; Soundings from the Atlantic; The 
Guardian Angel; The Medical Profession in Jfassachusetts ; 
and Mechanism in Thouglvt and Morals. Holmes' Old 
Ironsides — an indignant protest against the destruction of 
the frigate Constitution — created a public sentiment that 
prevented the fulfillment of that ungracious design. His 
verses on Lending an Old Punch Bowl, are in the happiest 
vein of that form of writing. 

Harte.— Francis Bret Harte, a very popular writer, 
was born in Albany, New York, in 1839. At an early age 
he went to California, turned miner, school-teacher, 
journalist, etc., and thus acquired that knowledge of life of 
which he subsequently made such happy use. In 1868, he 
became editor of the new magazine. The Overland Monthly , 
to which he contributed sketches of California life; first, 
The LucJc of Roaring* Camp; succeeded by The Outcasts 
of Poker Flat; Miggles; The Heathen Chinee, etc. He 
resigned from the Overland va. 1871 and settled at Boston 
and became connected with the Atlantic Monthly. In 
1873 he wrote An Episode of Fiddletown, and subse- 
quently several prose and poetical pieces. In 1878, Mr. 
Harte was appointed United States Consul to Crefeld, 
Germany. 

Woodworth.— Samuel Woodworth was born in 1785, 
and passed from among the living in 1842. He is 
the author of the familiar lyric, The Old Oaken Bucket. 
Mr. Woodworth was a poet of some distinction. 

Cooper,— James Fenimore Cooper, a distinguished 



142 THE examiner's compakion. 

novelist, was born at Burlington, New Jersey, in 1789. 
In 1821 appeared his first work, Precaution. In quick 
succession followed The S2^y, a tale which at once secured 
for him a place in the first rank of novelists; his almost 
unequaled sea-stories. The Bed Rover; Pilot; and Water- 
Witch; his famous " Leather Stocking Series" of Indian 
life and adventure, the Pioneers; Last of the Mohicans; 
Pathfinder; Deerslayer ; Prairie, etc. After passing some 
years in Europe, Mr. Cooper met his death in 1851. His 
works have been translated into every Eui'opean language, 
and have exhausted numberless editions. Besides his 
works of fiction. Cooper wrote A History of the Navy of 
the United States, and Lives of American Naval Officers. 
Hawthorne.— Nathaniel Hawthorne, a novelist of 
considerable note, was born at Salem, Massachusetts, in 
1804, and departed this life at Plymouth, New Hampshire, 
in 1864. He was educated at Bowdoin College, Maine, 
where he had among his fellow-students the poet 
Longfellow and Franklin Pierce. In 1837 he published 
his Twice-Told Tales. From 1853 to 1857 he filled the 
post of American consul at Liverpool, to which he was 
appointed by his early friend. President Pierce. His chief 
works are. The Scarlet Letter; The House of the Seven 
Gables; The Blithedale Romance; The Marble Faun; Life 
of President Pierce; and Our Old Home. 

Arthur.— Timothy Shay Arthur was born near 
Newburgh, Orange county. New York, in 1809. In 1841 
he removed to Philadelphia and associated himself as 
editor of Arthur'' s Magazine and of the Children^ Hoiir, a 
juvenile monthly, both of which have a high reputation. 
His popular tales, or novelettes, which are very numerous, 
have all been directed to the moral improvement of some 
classes of society, and have attained an immense circula- 
tion. His Temperance Tales, especially Ten Nights in a 
Bar-Room; and Six Nights with the Washingtonians : 
Lights and Shadows of Real Life; Tales for Rich and 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 143 

Poor; Library for the Household, and Good Time Coming, 
have been sold by tlie hundred thousand, and many of 
them reprinted in Europe, and translated into other 
languages. 

Adams.— William Taylor Adams, under the name of 
" Oliver Optic," which is a key to one main element of 
his popularity, is the most prolific, and the best writer that 
we have, of story-books for boys. The author himself 
really enjoys the boyish scenes which he ci'eates, while 
his long experience as a teacher has undoubtedly aided 
him on this point. Some of his publications are: Boat 
Club Series; Wbodville /Series; Army and Navy Series; 
River dale Stories; Uj)ward and Onward; Young America 
Abroad; In- Doors and Out; The Way of the World; Our 
Standard-Bearer ; and A Spelling-Book for Advanced 
Classes. Mr. Adams was born at Medway, Mass., in ]822. 

Stoive. — Harriet Beecher Stowe, an American novelist, 
was born in Litchfield, Conn., in 1814. She was a daugh- 
ter of Dr. Lyman Beecher, and in 1835 married Prof. C. E, 
Stowe, of Andover. In 1850 she made a sensation in the 
literary world by the publication of Uncle Tom^s Cabin, a 
work of fiction which had quite an astonishing success, 
and was translated into almost every language of Europe. 
To this book she added a Key in 1852. Her later produc- 
tions comprise Bred, a Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp 
(1856); The Minister' sWoovng (\^b%); Agnes of Sorrento 
(1861), and Oldtoini Folks (1869). In the latter year she 
brought out a JrocA^we entitled The True Story of Lady 
Byron's iJfe, in which she accused Lord Byron of incest. 
This article evoked a storm of literary criticism, which 
was by no means allayed by the publication in 1870 of 
Mrs. Stowe's work, entitled Lady Byron Vindicated. In 
1871 appeared: Oldtown Fireside Stories; Pink and White 
Tyranny; and 3Iy Wife and I, or, Harry HendersorCs 
History. 

JLippiiicott.— Mrs. Sara Jane Lippincott, nee Clarke, 



144 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

gained considerable distinction under the name of " Grace 
Greenwood," as a writer of tales and sketches for the 
magazines. Her latest efforts have been directed chiefly 
to writing for the young, and she edits a juvenile maga- 
zine called The Little Pilgrim. Mrs. Lippincott has pub- 
lished several volumes of no little merit. Among her most 
noted ones are: Greenwood Leaves; History of My Pets; 
Haps and Mishaps of a Tour in Europe; Stories of Many 
Lands, etc. Mrs. Lippincott was born at Pompey, New 
York, in 1823. 

JDickinson.— Anna Elizabeth Dickinson, lecturer, 
author, political speaker, play-writer and actress, was born 
at Philadelphia, Pa., in 1842. She has received consider- 
able praise as an American lecturer. A book entitled 
What Anstoer, has been published by her; w^iich was well 
received. About the year 1875 she entered upon the work 
of play-writing, and assumed the leading characters in her 
own dramas of Mary Tudor; Anne Poleyn, and other plays. 

Terlnine.— Mary Virginia Terhune, nee Hawes, was 
born about the year 1835. In 18'54 she acquired a high 
reputation by her novel entitled, Alone, which was 
written under the assumed name of " Marion Harland." 
Mrs. Terhune has written a great number of other novels 
since that time, and with a uniformity of excellence that 
is truly remarkable. The titles to some of them are: 
Husbands and Homes; Mubyh Husband; Phemie^s Tempt- 
atio7i; and Hidden Path. 

Tlioinpson.— Daniel Pierce Thompson was born at 
Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1795, and met his death in 
the year of 1868. Mr. Thompson's ablest productions 
were: The Green Mountain Boys (1840); and Locke Ams- 
den (1847). 

Irving.— Washington Irving, an eminent historian 
and writer of tales and sketches, was born of Scottish 
descent, in New York, in 1783. He was admitted to the 
bar early in life, but never practiced his profession, giving 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 145 

his special attention to literature. In 1809 appeared his 
History of N'eio York, by Diedrich Knickerbocker — a work 
which increased his already rising reputation, and earned 
him the friendship of Sir Walter Scott. In 1818 the Sketch 
Book raised him to the highest eminence as a prose writer. 
Next came Bracebridge Hall and Tales of a Traveler; 
History of the Life.and Voyages of Christopher Columbus; 
Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada; The Alhainbra; 
Astoria; Adventures of Captain Bonneville; Oliver Gold- 
smith, a Biography ; etc., etc. He died at his residence, 
Sunnyside, on the Hudson River, in 1859, leaving behind 
him a literaiy reputation of enduring brilliancy. 

Prescott.— William Hickling Prescott was born at 
Salem, Mass., in 1796. He graduated at Harvard in 
1814, and entered upon the study of the law, which he 
afterwards abandoned for the pursuits of literature. 
Although suffering from impaired vision, he entered with 
ardor upon the study of the Spanish language and litera- 
ture — studies which gave to the world in course of years, 
a series of historical works of the highest class, viz.: 
TJte History of Ferdinand and Isabella; Conquest of Mex- 
ico; Conquest of Peru; and the History of the Reign of 
Philip IL, a work he did not live to complete. Mr. Pres- 
cott died at Boston, with paralysis, in 1859. 

Bancroft.— George Bancroft was born at Worcester, 
Massachusetts, in 1800. Graduating at Harvard College 
in 1813, he then proceeded to Gottingen University, 
where he took the degree of LL.D., in 1820. In 
1845 he became Secretary of the Navy in the Cabinet of 
Mr. Polk. In 1846 he was sent to Great Britain as 
minister plenipotentiary, remaining in that country till 
1849. In 1867 he received the appointment of minister 
at the Prussian court. In 1871 Mr. Bancroft was appointed 
minister to Berlin, which office he resigned in 1874. His 
chief works are: History of the Colonization of the United 
States; and History of the Revolution^ of which leu 
10 



146 THK examiner's COMPANION. 

volumes have appeared. At the present writing Mr. 
Bancroft is quite feeble, on account of old age. 

Tickner. — George Ticknor was born at Boston in 
1791. After graduating at Dartmouth College, N. H., 
and passing some years in Europe, he became professor of 
the French and Spanish languages and literature at 
Harvard University. In 1849 he brought out his masterly 
History of /S2yamsh Literatitre, and in 1863 an excellent 
Life of William H. Prescott. Mr. Ticknor has also edited 
The Memains of Nathaniel Appleton Haven, and written a 
Life of Lafayette, first published in 1825 in the "North 
American Review." His death took place in 1871. 

Motley.— John Lothrop Motley was born in Massa- 
chusetts in 1814, and graduated at Harvard College in 1831, 
after which he traveled for some years in Europe. In 1 869 
Mr. Motley was appointed American minister to the 
court of St. James, a post from which he was removed 
in 1871. The three great works upon which Motley has 
built up one of the foremost literary reputations of the 
age, are The Mise of the Dutch Republic — a History ^ its 
sequel, The History of the United Netherlands from' the 
Death of Willia^n the SilejU to the Synod of Dort; and 
John of Baryieveld ; all of which have been translated 
into the French, Dutch, and German languages. Mr. 
Motley died in England in 1877. 

liossing. — Benson John Lossing was born in Dutchess 
county. New York, in 1813. He has produced among 
others the following popular illustrated works: Tht 
Pictorial Field-Booh of the Revolution; Mount Vernon and 
its Associations; Field-Booh of the War of 1812, and a. 
Pictorial History of the Civil War in the United States. 
The first named work is one which is destined to find its 
way to every farmer's hearth and to all the school libraries 
of our country. Mr. Lossing is, at the present writing, 
editor of '• The American Historical Record." 

Hildreth.— ^Richard Hildreth was born at Deerfield, 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 147 

Mass., in 180*7. In 1834, while sojourning in the South, 
he produced his anti-slavery novel, Archy Moore, which , 
was republished in England under the title of the White 
Slave, and became very popular. In 1840, Hildreth 
removed to Demerara, British Guiana, where in an editor- 
ial capacity he became a prominent advocate of free 
labor. His chief work is t\ie History of the United States. 
Hildreth has also published Japan as it Was and Is, and 
has of late years been connected with the editorial staff 
of' the "New York Tribune." His death took place in 
1865, at Florence. 

ISillimau. — Benjamin Silliman, a scientist of note, was 
born in the State of Connecticut, in 1779, and died in 
1864. Mr. Silliman graduated at Yale College in 1796, 
and entered upon the professorship of chemistry there in 
1804, in which position he gained great celebi'ity, both as 
an experimentalist and as a popular lecturer. In 1818 he 
founded The American Journal of Science and Arts, the 
first of its kind in the United States, and conducted it for 
more than twenty years with success. He was one of the 
ablest lecturers on chemistry and geology that his country 
has produced, and published several text-books and treatises 
on those sciences. 

Henry. — Joseph Henry was born in Albany, N. Y., in 
1 797, received a common school education, and commenced 
life as a watchmaker in his native city. He invented the 
first machine moved by the agency of electro-magnetism, 
and was the first to demonstrate those principles by which 
intelligence is conveyed between distant points through 
the agency of the electric telegraph. In 1846 be was 
elected First Secretary of the Smithsonian Institute at 
Washington, a post he held until his death, in 1878. In 
1839, Mr. Henry published Contributions to Electricity and 
3Iagnetism, and has contributed several scientific papers to 
The American Philosojyhical Society, to Silliman'' s Journal , 
and to the Journal of the FrmiMin Institute, 



14:8 THU examinee's companion. 

Kase. — Elisha Kent Kane, an American Arctic ex- 
plorer, was born in Philadelphia, in 1S20, and died at 
Havana, Cuba, in 1857. After graduating as doctor of 
medicine in the University of Pennsylvania, in 1842, he 
performed a course of foreign travel, served in the Mexi- 
can war, and in 1850 went as surgeon to Lieutenant 
DeHaven's expedition in search of Sir John Franklin. 
In 1853 he himself took command of a second expedition 
directed to the same object, and discovered the existence 
of an open Polar sea. His experiences are narrated in 
his The United States Grinnell Expedition in Search of 
Sir John Franklin (1854); and Arctic Explorations (1856). 
The Royal Geographical Society of London bestowed 
up'on Dr. Kane its great gold medal. 

"Worcester. — Joseph Emeraon Worcester, an American 
lexicographer, was born in Bedford, N. H., in 1784, and 
met his death at Cambridge, Mass., in 1865. He graduated 
at Yale College, in 1811, and for several years afterwards 
taught in Salem. His great work is his Dictionary of the 
English Language, which has taken its rank among the 
best works of the kind. Among his other works are: 
Geographical Dictionary, or Universal Gazetteer, 2 vols., 
1817; Gazetteer of the United States, 1818; Elements oj 
History, Ancient and Modern, 1828. Dr. Worcester was 
a Fellow of the American Academy of Sciences, a corre- 
sponding member of the Royal Geographical Society in 
London, and a member of other learned bodies. 

Marsh. — George Perkins Marsh was born at Wood- 
stock, Vt., in 1801, and departed this life in the year 1882. 
Mr. Marsh graduated at Dartmouth College, N. H., in 
1820, and after being called to the bar and elected a mem 
bfer of the Supreme Executive Council of his State, was 
elected to Congress 1842-48. He became minister resident 
at the Ottoman Porte in 1849, to Greece in 1852, and in 
1861 was appointed to the Italian court. His published 
works include a Compendious Grammar- of the old North- 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 149 

eni or Icelandic Language, compiled and translated from 
the Grammar of Hask,' The Camel j his Organization, 
Habits, and Uses/ Lectures on the English Language ; and 
Man and Nature; or, Physical Geography as Modified by 
Human Action. 

Audnbon.— John James Audubon, a distinguished 
American naturalist, was born of French parents, on a 
plantation near New Orleans, La., in 1780, and from his 
earliest years was taught to study nature. He received 
his education in France, and attained considerable pro- 
ficiency as a painter under the celebrated David. At the 
age of seventeen, he returned to the woods of the New 
World, and began to form a collection of drawings, under 
the name of jBirds of America. In 1824 he visited Europe 
for the purpose of obtaining subscribers to the above 
named work, and was everywhere well received. In 1827, 
Mr. Audubon returned to America, and established him- 
self on the banks of the Hudson. There he labored in 
preparing The Quadrupeds of America, a work published 
in 1850. Audubon died in 1851. A Life of Audubon, 
compiled from his journal by his widow, was published 
in 1869. 

Webster. — Noah Webster, an eminent American lexi- 
cographer, was born in 1758, in that part of Hartford, 
Conn., which now forms the town of West Hartford. He 
was in the army on the occasion of Burgoyne's expedition 
to Canada. When peace was restored, Noah continued 
his studies, and in 1781 was called to the bar. He aban- 
doned the law, however, became a schoolmaster and author, 
and published the Eirst Part of a Grammatical Institute; 
Sketches of American Policy, etc. But the work on which 
his reputation is founded is his elaborate American Dic- 
tionary of the English Language, a monument of vast 
ability, industry, and learning. Dr. Webster is also the 
author of a Spelling-Hook, by which he is known the 
world over. There has been sold more than fifty million 



150 Thk examiner's companion. 

copies of tills last-mentioned work. His death occurred 
at New Haven, Conn., in 1843. 

Wilson.— Alexander Wilson, an American ornithol- 
ogist, was born at Paisley, Scotland, in 1766. In 1794 
he landed in America, with his fowling-piece in his hand, 
and only a few shillings in his pocket, without a friend or 
letter of introduction, or any definite idea in what manner 
he was to earn his livelihood. For more than eight years 
he followed the various occupations of a weaver, peddler, 
and schoolmaster. During this time he labored diligently 
at self-improvement, and among the acquirements he made 
were the arts of drawing, coloring, and etching, which 
afterwards proved of incalculable use to him. His uncom- 
pleted work, American Ornithology, far exceeded the 
expectations of the public, and eight volumes successively 
made their appearance, and procured him great and deserved 
reputation. Before he could finish his great undertaking, 
he was seized with a sudden and severe illness, and died 
in 1813. The work was afterwards continued by Charles 
Lucien Bonaparte. 

Agassiz.— Louis John Rudolph Agassiz, an eminent 
naturalist, was born in 1807, at Motiers, canton of Frey- 
burg, Switzerland, where his father was a pastor. He 
studied the medical science at Zurich, Heidelberg, and 
Munich, where he graduated in 1830. In 1846, Agassiz 
arrived in the United States in the furtherance of his 
scientific researches, accepted in 1847 the professorship of 
Zoology and Geology at Harvard University, Cambridge, 
and became, in 1868, a non-resident professor at the Cor- 
nell University, Ithaca, New York, Some of his chief 
works are : N^atural History of the Fresh-ioater Fishes of 
Central Europe; Researches on Fossil Fishes; Monogra- 
phy of Living and Fossil Echinodermata ; Outlines of 
Comparative Physiology; Contributions to the Natural 
History of the United States; and A Journey in Brazil. 
In 1871, he was appointed Chief of the Scientific Corps 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 151 

attached to the United States Coast Survey expedition. 
Prof. Agassiz died in 1873. 

Gay ot.— Arnold Henry Guyot was born near Neufchatel, 
Switzerland, in 1807. By his investigations in Physical 
Geography he has placed himself at the head of that 
branch of science in the United States. He has given 
some of the results of his inquiries in an interesting and 
popular volume, called Earth and 3fan, which work has 
passed through many editions. Prof. Guyot is also the 
author of a large number of elaborate Wall Maps of 
Physical Geography, and of a series of admirable Com- 
mon School Geographies. His death took place in 1884. 

Steele.— J. Dorman Steele is one of the progressive 
men among our younger class of teachers. Prof. Steele 
has acquired a high reputation as a teacher, and his series 
of Short Courses in several of the sciences are a marked 
feature among our latest school-book publications. His 
birth occurred in the year 1836. The following are some 
of Prof. Steele's works, which grew out of his own wants 
in the school-room: Fourteen Weeks in Natural Philoso- 
phy ; the same in Chemistry ; Astronomy j Geology ; Phys- 
iology ; Botany and Zoology. 

McGJnffey.- Williams Holmes McGuffey, D.D., LL.D., 
was born in 1800, and met his death in 1873. Prof. 
McGuffey is widely known by his Electric Series of School 
Readers. He was for a long time Professor of Moral 
Philosophy and Political Economy in the University of 
Virginia. 

Bennett.— James Gordon Bennett, a journalist of note, 
was born at New Hill, Keith, in Scotland, about 1800. He 
was educated for the priesthood at a Roman Catholic sem- 
inary at Aberdeen, but did not follow out the intention of 
his parents. In April, 1819, during a period of great com- 
mercial depression, he left his native land for America, 
where he attempted to earn his living as a teacher, but 
with very indifferent success. In 1822 he obtained a sit- 



152 THE -examiner's COMPANION. 

nation on a Charleston newspaper, which he did not hold 
long, and repaired to New York, where he became an 
active member of the Fourth Estate, The first number of 
the New York Herald, of which he was the founder, 
appeared May 5, 1835. This speculation proved most suc- 
cessful, and Mr. Bennett amassed a very large fortune. 
He was incontestably a man of great abilities, penetration, 
and judgment. His death occurred at New York, in 1872. 

Greeley.— Horace Greeley was born at Amherst, N. H., 
in 1811. In 1831, Horace arrived in New York city, 
where he secured occasional work as a printer in various 
oifices. In 1834, he with others, started T'AeiVevo Yorker, 
a weekly literary journal, which after several years' trial 
proving unprofitable, was abandoned, and in 1841 Greeley 
commenced the publication of the New York Tribune, a 
journal which has been eminently successful. Mr. Greeley 
is the author of a collection of addresses, essays, etc., pub- 
lished under the title of Hints towards Reforms, and of A 
History of the Struggle for Slavery Extension or Mestric- 
tion in the United States from 1787 to 1856, published in 
1856. He ardently supported the Union cause during the 
civil war, of which he wrote a history entitled The Amer- 
ican Conflict, published in 1864 and 186*7. He has since 
written his autobiography, under the title of Recollections 
of a Rnsy Life, which appeared in 1868. In 1872, 
Greeley was nominated by the Liberal Republicans, and 
also by the Democratic party, as their presidential candi- 
date, in opposition to Gen. Grant, but he failed to be 
elected. His death took place in 1872. Some more of 
his chief publications are: Glances at Europe; Art and 
Industry, as represented in the Exhibition of the Crystal 
Palace,' Association Discussed; What I Knoio of Farm- 
ing; and The American Conflict. 

Raymond. — Plenry Jai-vis Raymond, founder and edi- 
tor of the Neio York Times, was born in Lima, New York, 
in 1820 and graduated at the University of Vermont in 



AMERICAN LITER ATTJREo 153 

1840. In 1841 he became managing-editor of the JVeto 
York Tribune, and afterwards leading editor of the Neio 
York Courier cmd Enquirer. In 1851, he established the 
JVew York Times. In 1852, he became a delegate to the 
Baltimore Convention, and in 1856, a leader of the Repub- 
lican party, and was chosen Lieut.-Governor of New 
York. He was a delegate to the Chicago Convention of 
1860; and, in 1864, was chosen as representative from 
New York to the 39th Congress. He, subsequently, in 
1866, was the leading spirit of the Wigwam Convention 
in Philadelphia, the resolutions of which body were from 
his pen. Mr. Raymond died at New York, in 1869. 

Harlbnt.— William Henry Hurlbut, once proprietor 
of the New York World, is probably, of all the living 
journalists of America, who have made journalism a dis- 
tinct and exclusive profession, the one most highly edu- 
cated, as he is the most brilliant and versatile. Besides a 
thorough classical and academic training, and familiarity 
with the languages and literature of the leading nations 
of Europe, he has had large .experience of travel and of 
intercourse with men in all the great centers of power. 
These advantages he utilizes to the last degree, and he 
throws himself into the work of writing, on the exigencies 
of the hour, with a fulness of resource and an abandon of 
effort that are marvelous. Mr. Hurlbut has published 
several volumes, but his principal work is what he has 
done and is doing, at the present writing, as a journalist. 
His birth occurred in 1827. 

<]rodwi!i. — Parke Godwin was born at Patterson, N. J., 
in 1816, and graduated at Princeton College, in 1834. 
From 1837 till 1853, he was co-editor of the New York 
Evening Post, along with his father-in-law, the poet Bry- 
ant. He has since edited "Putnam's Magazine," and been 
for some years engaged upon a History of France, of 
which the first volume appeared in 1870. Mr. Godwin 
has also published a volume of iDolitical essays, a biogra- 



154 THE examiner's companion. 

phy of his father-in-law, which appeared in 1883, and a 
collection of miscellaneous writings called Art of the Past. 

Thompson.— John R. Thompson, long connected with 
the /Sotfthern Literary Messenger^ and now with the New 
York Evening Post, has performed excellent service to the 
periodical literature of the country. Mr. Thompson was 
born in the year 1823. 

Ripley.— George Ripley was born at Greenfield, Mass., 
in 1802, became, in 1849, literary editor of the New York 
Tribune^ and has since, conjointly with Mr. C. A. Dana, 
edited Appletovus Neio Americxin Cydopcedia. Among 
his w^orks are Edited Specimens of Foreign Standard Lit- 
erature; and Iland-hooh of Literature and the Fine Arts; 
the latter in conjunction with Bayard Taylor. Also Dis- 
CG2(rses on the Philosophy of Peligion; and Letters to 
Andrew Norton on the Latest Form of Infidelity. 

Dana.— Charles Anderson Dana, editor of the Nev; 
York Svn, has been prominent as a joiirnalist for more 
than twenty years past. He was associated with 
George Ripley in editing Apjyletoji's Cydojxcdia, and he 
edited the Household Book of Poetry. For a long time 
he was prominent in the editorial management of the New 
York Tribune; and after leaving that paper he assumed 
the editorship of the Nev) York Sun, in which position he, 
at the present writing, continues. Mr. Dana was born at 
Hinsdale, N. H., in the year 1819. 

Townsend.— George Alfred Townsend, the " Gath"of 
the " Chicago Tribune," has had a large and varied 
experience as a war correspondent, both in Europe and 
America, and has written for nearly all of the leading 
journals, — the New York Herald, World, Cincinnati 
Commercial, Chicago Tribune, and others of like standing. 
Since lS68 he has been in the exclusive employment of the 
Chicago Tribune, the leading newspaper of the North- 
west, writing both editorial and correspondence, the latter 
over the signature of " Gath." Of Mr. Townsend's 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 155 

separate publications, in book form, the following are the 
chief: Canijjaigus of a J^on- Combatant and his Roniaunt 
Abroad During the War; the Story of the Conspiracy 
against the Lives of the Executive Officers of the United 
States in 1865; The Nexo World compared with the Old; 
and Lost Abroad. Mr. Townsend was born in 1841. 

Reid.— Whitelaw Reid, editor-in-chief of the " New 
York Tribune," first made his mark in literatui-e as a 
newspaper correspondent, under the signature of "Agate." 
He has written two books: one, After the War, gives a 
graphic account of the condition of the South in the 
years 1865-6; the othei-, Ohio in the War, besides being 
an eloquent tribute to his native State, was prepared with 
such painstaking and elaborate research as to form a 
valuable addition to the history of the epoch. Mr. Reid's 
birth occurred in 1839. 

Eggleston.— Edward Eggleston, D.D., formerly editor 
of the " New York Independent," and, at the present 
writing, of " Hearth and Home," has shown eminent fitness 
for the work of journalism, and has been uniformly 
successful in his various enterprises in that line. Some 
of his published works are: The Hoosier Schoolmaster; 
Mr. Blake's Walking Stick, a Christmas Story for Boys 
and Girls; The Book of Queer Stories; Sunday- School 
Conventions and Institute; Sunday- School Maiiual. All 
these books have been very popular, and have sold 
largely. Mr. Eggleston was born in 1837. 

Tilton.— Theodore Tiltoa was born in 1835. Mr. 
Tilton is the author of several volumes which have 
commanded considerable attention. His principal work, 
however, thus far, has been in the line of journalism, for 
many years in the " New York Independent," and, at this 
writing, in his own paper. The Golden Age. One of his 
books, entitled Tempest Tossed, has been very popular with 
the reading public, numerous editions having been sold. 
Some few years ago Mr. Tilton traveled through the 



156 THE examinee's companiok. 

different States, delivering to large audiences his instructive 
and well-th(iught-of lecture called The Problem of Life. 

Cotton.— Rev. John Cotton, a well-known theologian, 
was born in 1585, and departed this life in 1652. Mr. 
Cotton is chiefly known by his Milk for Babes; Meat for 
Strong 3Ie)i, and sundry other publications suited to the 
times. His work, entitled Milk for Babes, was a catechism 
for instructing young children in the elements of Christian 
doctrine. The piece, though small, was of great 
influence and importance. It was one of the documents 
which composed the famous New England Primer, and 
as such was for many generations stored in the memory of 
almost every New England child. 

IVilliaius. — Roger Williams, founder of the colony of 
Rhode Island, was born at Wales in 1606, and died at 
Providence, in 1683. After being educated at Oxford, he 
was ordained a minister of the Church of England. After- 
wards adopting Puritan doctrines, he emigrated to Massa- 
chusetts in 1631, from which colony he was expelled on 
account of his peculiar religious views. Thereupon, in 
1636, he founded the city of Providence, obtained a 
charter for the new colony of Rhode Island in 1643, and 
governed it as its president, 1654-7. George Bancroft, in 
his " History of the United States," writes of Mr. Williams 
with the highest admiration and genuine eloquence. 

Eliot.— John Eliot, commonly called " The Apostle of 
the Indians," was born in England in 1604, and died at 
Roxbury, Mass., in 1690. He was educated at Cambridge, 
but on embracing Puritanism, he, in 1631, emigrated to 
New England, and became pastor of a congregation of 
Independents at Roxbury, where he established a grammar- 
school. In 1646 he began to learn the Indian language, 
that he might devote himself to the conversion of the 
natives. In this he met with great success, and obtained 
a considerable influence over the various tribes. He trans- 
lated the Bible into their language, and also several pieces 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 157 

of practical divinity. A handsome memorial to perpetuate 
his name was erected in the Forest Hills Cemetery, at 
Roxbury. 

Mather.— Increase Mather was born at; Dorchester, 
Mass., in 1039, and was educated at Harvard College, 
where he took his degree, in 1656. In the following year 
he went to England, where he obtained preferment, and 
was greatly distinguished for his urbanity and integrity; 
but in consequence of his Nonconformist opinions was 
obliged to return to his native colony, where he was 
appointed minister at Boston; in 1684, was elected presi- 
dent of Harvard College, and created D.D. He was the 
author of many theological works; a History of the Indiwi 
War; Remarkable Pi^ovidences ; and a JDiscoiirse on Comets 
and Earthquakes. His death occurred in 1*7 23. 

Johnson.— Samuel Johnson, D.D., is considered the 
father of Episcopacy in Connecticut. Mr. Johnson was a 
man of distinguished attainments and ability, and upon 
the establishment of King's (now Columbia) College, New 
York, he was chosen President, — but retired finally to his 
original charge in Stratford, Conn. He published several 
works, among them A System of Morality, and various 
controversial tracts in favor of Episcopacy. His birth 
occurred in 1696, and he died in 1722. 

Bnrr.— Aaron Burr, second president of the College of 
New Jersey, was a man of no little note as a writer. His 
chief publication was a Treatise on the Supreme Deity of 
Our Lord Jesus Christ. Mr. Burr was a son-in-law of 
Jonathan Edwards, and father of the Aaron Burr who 
figured so largely in political affairs. The subject of our 
sketch was born in 1710, and met his death in 1757. 

Edwards.— Jonathan Edwards, an eminent American 
theologian and metaphysician, was born at Windsor, Conn., 
in 1 703. He graduated at Yale College in 1 720, and after 
filling a tutorship in that university, 1724-6, became in the 
year following pastor of a church of Northampton. In 1751 



158 THE examiner's companion. 

he went as missionary among the Indians, and in 1757 was 
chosen president of Princeton College, New Jersey, where 
he died in 1758. Of his numerous writings, the most 
celebrated is An It^quiry into the Modern Prevailing 
Nations resjyecting that Freedom of the JVill which is sitp- 
2)osed to be Essential to Moral Agency, 1754. Some of 
his other works with which the public are familiar, are: 
7Vie History of Redemption; The End for vMck God 
Created the World; and The Religious Affections. Mr. 
Edwards was third president of the College of New 
Jersey. 

I>avies. — Samuel Davies, fourth President of the Col- 
lege of New Jersey, was in his day the most famous 
preacher in America. The traditions in regard to the 
power of Mr. Davies as a pulpit orator fully equal those 
in regard to the popular and forensic eloquence of Patrick 
Henry. Davies's Sermons are to this day among the most 
])opular to be found in that class of literature. He was 
the author also of a number of excellent Hymns, some of 
which hold their place in the hymnals of the present day. 
Mr. Davies was born in 1723, and he died in 1761. 

Beeclicr. — Lyman Beecher, fatl;ier of the eminent 
Henry Ward Beecher, was born in New Haven, Conn,, in 
1775, and departed this life at Brooklyn, in 1863. After 
gi'aduating at Yale College in 1797, he studied theology 
under Prof. Dwight. In 1810, as minister of the Con- 
gregational Church, at Litchfield, Conn., he acquired great 
eminence as a preacher. In 1832, he became minister of 
the Second Presbyterian Church, at Cincinnati, and also 
President of Lane Theological Seminary in the same city. 
Among his chief publications are: Sermons on Temper- 
ance; Political Atheism; Plea for the West; Views in 
Tibeology ; and Scepticism. 

Channing.— William Ellery Channing, one of the 
most elegant writers this country has produced, was born 
at Newport, R. I., in 1780, and died of typhus fever in 



AMEKICAX LITERATURE. 159 

1842. In 1803, he became pastor of the Federal Street 
Church, Boston. During the Unitarian controversy, Dr. 
Channing was the head of the liberal party, and took an 
active part in its defence. Among his most successful 
productions are his lectures on Self- Culture, and on the 
Elevation of the Laboring Classes. His work on slavery, 
published in 1841, had also a wide circulation. His col- 
lected works have been published in six 12mo. vols. 
(Boston, in 1840), and republished in London, in 1855. 

Campbell.— Alexander Campbell, the founder of toe 
religious sect called Camphellites or Disciples of Christ, 
was born in Ireland, in 17s8, and departed this life in 
1866. In 1812 he withdrew from the Presbyterian 
Church, and united himself with the Baptist association; 
but in 1827 he was excluded from the fellowship of the 
Baptist Churches. In 1841, Campbell founded Bethany 
College, at Bethany, Va. He was a man of extraordinary 
intellectual activity, and the amount of labor, which he 
performed during the forty-five years of his ministry, bor- 
ders on the marvelous. As a public disputant on relig- 
ious topics, he has probably never had his superior. His 
writings fill nearly sixty volumes, and yet they were but 
a part, and that not the largest part, of his work. 

Beeclier." Henry Ward Beecher, an eminent author 
and divine, was born in 1813, at Litchfield, Conn. Hq 
graduated at Amherst College in 1834, and studied theol- 
ogy under his father, at Lane Seminary. He first settled 
as a Presbyterian minister at Lawrenceburg, Ind., in 1837; 
removed in 1839 to Indianapolis, and became Pastor of 
the Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, N. Y., an organized body 
of worshipers calling themselves "Orthodox Congrega- 
tional Believers," in 1847. In 1850 he published Lect- 
ures to Young Men, and Lndustry and Idleness ' in 1855, 
The Star Papers, a series of articles contributed to the 
"New York Independent," and, in 1858, a second series of 
the same. His Life Thoughts appeared in 1858. In 1871 



160 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

appeared his work entitlHsd a Life of Jesus, and in 1869 a 
complete edition of Beecher's Sermons was published in 
New York. Mr. Beecher died at Brooklyn, N. Y,, 
March 8, ISSV. 

HopkiRson. — Joseph Hopkinson, an eminent Ameri- 
can jurist, was born in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1770, became 
judge of the United States Court for the Eastern District 
of Pennsylvania, and died in 1S42. He was the author of 
the well-known national song entitled Hail Columbia. 

Key.— Francis Scott Key, an American jurist, born in 
Frederick county, Md., in 1779, became District- Attorney 
of the Federal District of Columbia. He wrote the popular 
national song, The Star^ Spangled Banner. Mr. Key died 
at Baltimore, Md., in 1843. The late James Lick, of 
San Francisco, Cal., so highly appreciated his genius that 
in his will he bequeathed f 100,000 for the purpose of 
erecting a suitable monument to Mr. Key's memory. 

Wirt.— William Wirt was born at Bladensburg, Md., 
in 1772. He became a member of the bar of Virginia, 
was a leading council in the prosecution of Aaron Burr, 
and from 1817 till 1829 filled the position of attorney- 
general of the United States. In 1832 he was the unsuc- 
cessful nominee of the Anti-Masonic party for the Presi- 
dency. His Life of Patrick Henry, and British Spy, are 
held in much favor. Mr. Wirt's death took place in 1834. 

Kent. — James Kent was born in Philippi, New York, 
in 1763. He was educated at Yale College, entered on 
the practice of the law in 1785, sat four years in the State 
Legislature of New York, and in 1794 was chosen professor 
of law at Columbia College. In 1804 he was appointed 
chief justice, and about ten years later chancellor, of the 
State of New York; and on his quitting the latter office on 
account of his age, he again undertook the professorship 
of law at Columbia College. In 1826 and the four fol- 
lowing years appeared his important work, Commentaries 
on American Jjaw, esteemed an authority in England ag 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 161 

well as in the United States. Chancellor Kent was no less 
esteemed for his private virtues than for his professional 
abilities and his public services. He died in 1847. 

Story.— Joseph Story was born at Marblehead, Mass., 
in 1779, studied at Harvard University, where he took his 
degree in 1798, was called to the bar in 1801, and soon 
acquired a distinguished reputation as a pleader. He 
represented Salem in the State legislature four years; was 
sent to Congress in 1809, and in 1811 was appointed Associ- 
ate Justice in the Supreme Court of the United States. In 
this capacity he displayed a thorough knowledge of the 
most intricate questions relating to international law, and 
earned such distinction as a jurist that his name has been 
carried far beyond the limits of this country. His Com- 
metitaries on the Conflict of IjCiws is looked upon as an 
authority in every State in Europe. His other chief works 
are: Commentaries on the Constitution of the United 
States, and treatises upon Equity Jurisprudence; the Law 
of Bailments ; of Bills of Exchange; of Promissory Notes; 
and of Partnership. Judge Story died in 1845. 

Ularshall. — John Marshall was born in Fouquier 
county, Va., in 1755, and died at Philadelphia, in 1835. 
Receiving but a limited education, he then took part in 
the military service of the Revolutionary War. While 
thus engaged he obtained his first knowledge of law, and 
was admitted to the bar in 1780, but returned to the army 
to assist in repelling the invasion of Arnold. In 1782 he 
was elected to the legislature of his State, where he con- 
tinued until 1796. In the year 1799, he was elected to 
Congress, where he displayed remarkable ability, particu- 
larly in his speeches on theRobbins case, in vindication of 
the government. He was appointed to the chief-justice- 
ship of the Supreme Court of the United States in 1801, 
in which he displayed great legal ability by his decisions. 
Chief-Justice Marshall connected himself with the general 
literature of the country by his Life of Washington. 
11 



162 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

Hamilton. — Alexander Hamilton, a statesman of note, 
was born in the Isle of Nevis (West Indies), of Scottish 
descent, in 1757, and was killed in a duel fought with 
Aaron Burr, at Hoboken, in 1804. He became a citizen of 
the United States, and in 1782 a member of the Conti- 
nental Congress. In 1789 he was appointed Secretary of 
the Treasury, a position he filled with peculiar ability, 
since his financial measures restored the public credit, 
established a national banking system, and generally was 
productive of prosperity to the country at large. After 
the death of Washington, Hamilton filled for a short period 
the office of commander-in-chief, A national treasure 
entitled The Federalist w as mainly his work. 

Jay, — John Jay, who may be classed with the statesmen, 
was born in New York City, in 1 745, where he was admitted 
to the bar in 1768. In 1777 he was appointed Chief Jus- 
tice of New York, and in the following year President of 
Congress. He next took part in negotiating the treaty of 
peace entered into at Paris, in 1783, between Great Britain 
and the United States. On his return he was appointed 
Secretary of Foreign Affairs, and in 1789 Chief Justice 
of the Supreme Court. In 1794 he proceeded on a special 
mission to England, where he concluded a treaty which 
met with violent opposition from the Anti-Federalist party. 
He afterwards held the Governorship of New York State, 
and, after refusing a second nomination to the Chief 
Justiceship, died in 1829. 

Hopkinson,— Francis Hopkinson was born in Phila- 
delphia, in 1737, and died in 1791. He graduated at the 
college of his native city, and afterwards made the law 
his study. He produced many satires and ironical pieces, 
such as the Prophecy, the Political Catechism, etc. Among 
his works, the greater part of which are of a political 
character, there are many sound essays and scientific 
papers, acute and learned judicial decisions, and a variety 
of songs possessing much sweetness and delicacy, which 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 163 

were rendered still more popular by the airs he composed 
for them. One entitled Battle of the Kegs, set the whole 
country in a roar of laughter. 

Everett.— Edward Everett was born at Dorchester, 
Mass., in 1794, and departed this life in 1865. He was 
appointed Professor of Greek at Harvard, and after his 
return from a European tour, became editor of the " North 
American Review," which he conducted till 1824. In the 
same year h^ was returned to Congress, where he served, 
by repeated re-elections, for ten years. In 1834, he was 
elected Governor of Massachusetts, and in 1840 was nomi- 
nated Minister to England; on his return in 1845, he was 
chosen President of Harvard University, and in 1850, 
Secretary of State under Mr. Fillmore's administration. 
Throughout his career, Mr. Everett has evinced an ardent 
attachment to literary pursuits, and has published two vol- 
umes of orations, delivered by him on various occasions. 
He has also appended to the works of Daniel Webster, a 
life of that statesman. 

Webster. — Daniel Webster, an illustrious American 
statesman, jurist, and orator, was born at Salisbury (now 
Franklin), New Hampshire, in 1782. After receiving his 
rudimentary education at Exeter and Boscawen academies, 
he entered Dartmouth College, in 1797, as a freshman, 
and after graduating in 1801, entered upon the study of 
the law at Salisbury and Boston, in which latter city he 
was called to the bar in 1805. By 1815 Webster had 
risen to the highest rank in his profession as a constitu- 
tional lawyer, and also as a consummate leader in criminal 
causes. In 1813 he was elected to the lower house of Con- 
gress by the Federal party, and re-elected in 1815. In 
1822 he was again elected to Congress, where, as Chair- 
man of the Judiciary Committee, he rendered eminent 
assistance in the entire revision of the U. S. criminal code. 
In 1828 Mr. Webster became Senator, and in 1841 was 
appointed Secretary of State under President Harrison, 



164 THE examiner's COMPANION 

retaining the office during Mr. Tyler's chief magistracy. 
The most remarkable event of his official terra was the 
so-called Ashburton Treaty with England, in settlement of 
the N. E. Boundary question. Re-elected to the Senate in 
1844, he opposed alike the admission of Texas into the 
Union and the prosecution of the war with Mexico, and 
supported Henry Clay's "Compromise Measures" of 1850 
in relation to the extension of slavery to new territories. 
In 1850 he again became Secretary of State, this time 
under Mr. Fillmore, and was unsuccessfully nominated for 
the Presidency by the National Whig Convention of 1852. 
Mr. Webster died at Marshfield, Mass., Oct. 24, 1852. 

Clay. — Henry Clay was born near Richmond, Va., in 
1777, and died at Washington, D. C, in 1852. He was 
admitted to the bar in 1797, and speedily established a 
brilliant practice in Lexington, Ky. Clay was elected to 
the State Legislature in 1804, and in 1806, and in 1809 
sat as Senator in Congress. In 1816 he supported theU. S. 
Bank charter; in 1821 he earnestly advocated the "Missouri 
Compromise," and, in 1824, was an unsuccessful candidate 
for the Presidency of the Union. In 1825, Clay became 
Secretary of State; in the following year fought a mild 
duel with Mr. Randolph; was elected U. S. Senator, 
1831-37, and in 1832 accepted the Presidential candidature 
of the anti-Jackson party, only to be again defeated. In 
] 844 the National Whig Convention nominated Clay (the 
third time) for the Presidency, with as little success as 
before. He strenuously opposed the acquisition of Texas, 
and, in 1848, having been again elected to the Senate, he 
then took a prominent part in effecting the Compromise of 
1850, which deferred for ten years the impending struggle 
between the North and South on the question of slavery. 

Calhoun.— John Caldwell Calhoun graduated with 
distinction at Yale College, in 1804, and practiced with 
success at the bar. Entering Congress in 1810, he there 
became the leader of the Democratic and War party, and 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 165 

in his first session built up a political reputation. In 
1817, he was appointed minister of war, and in 1820 
supported the Missouri Compromise Bill. In 1824, he 
was elected Vice-President of the Union, and re-elected in 
1828. In 1832 Calhoun was elected Senator, and retired 
from this office in 1843, being appointed Secretary of State 
in the following year. Resuming his senatorial position 
in 1845, he opposed both the Mexican War and the 
Wilmot Proviso. His work entitled a Treatise on the 
Nature of Government, was published after the author's 
death. Mr. Calhoun was born of Irish parents at Long Cane, 
S. C, in 1782, and died at Washington, D. C, in 1850. 

Choate.— Rufus Choate was born at Essex, Mass., in 
1799, and departed this life at Halifax, N. S., in 1858. 
Graduating at Dartmouth College, he entered upon the 
study of law at Cambridge, and in Washington, In 1841 
he was elected to the Senate, which he quitted in 1845. 
After the death of Daniel Webster, Mr. Choate became 
the recognized leader of the Massachusetts bar, and 
acquired a national reputation. As an advocate and 
orator he may be classed with the most distinguished 
masters of modern eloquence. His claims to literary 
notice rest upon his speeches in congress and several 
addresses on public occasions, which have been printed. 
Of his speeches, the most noted ones are those on the 
tariff, the Oregon question, and the annexation of Texas. 

Sumner.— Charles Sumner was born at Boston, Mass., 
in . 1811, and filled an honored grave in 1874. He 
graduated at Harvard College in 1830, and commenced 
the practice of law in his native city, four years later. In 
1850, a combination of Free-soilers and Democrats 
returned him to congress, as successor to Daniel Webster, 
and in that body he soon became a man of mark, as the 
leader of the Abolitionist party. He opposed the Fugitive 
Slave Bill of 1854, and in 1856 eloquently combated the 
aggressions made by pro-slavery agitators in Kansas. In 



166 



THE EXAMINER S COMPANION. 



1859, in a speech in which he denounced " the barbarism 
of slavery," he produced a great sensation; and in the 
following year supported Mr. Lincoln's candidature for 
the Presidency. In 1861, he was appointed chairman of the 
committee on Foreign Relations, a position he retained until 
1871. Mr. Sumner's last important speech, 1872, was an 
elaborate and eloquent, but exceedingly bitter, attack 
upon the administration of President Grant. His death 
took place at Washington, D. C. 

Stephens. — Alexander Hamilton Stephens was born in 
Wilkes county, Georgia, in 1812, and died in his native 
state, at Atlanta, in 1883. At the age of twenty he grad- 
uated from Franklin college at Athens, Ga., and two years 
later began the practice of law. He afterwards served 
five terms in his state's legislature, and in 1842 M^as elected 
to the state senate, and the next year was sent to congress 
by the Whig party, and served until 1859. Mr. Stephens 
was a member of the Southern Congress which met at 
Montgomery, Ala., February, 1861, and was chosen Vice- 
President of the Confederacy. In 1872 he was elected to 
congress and held that place until he was chosen governor 
of Georgia in 1882. He was a man of extraordinary 
courage, quick, shrewd, and cutting at debate, rather than 
weighty,yet few men were more feared in congress. In 1869 
he published A History of the War of Secession, and in 
1870, A Constitutional I'^ieto of the War between the States. 

Emerson.— Ralph Waldo Emerson was born at Boston 
in 1803, and died at his native city in 1882. . He 
graduated at Harvard College in 1821, and afterwards 
became an essayist and critic of much note. In ] 838, Mr. 
Emerson published Literary JEthics, an Oration; and in 
1839, Nattire, an Essay. In 1841, he published The 
Method of Nature, Man the Reformer, several lectures, 
and the first sej-ies of his Essays, the second series of 
which appeared in 1844. In 1856 appeared a work 
entitled English Traits, and in 1860, he published The 



AMEKICAN LITERATURE. 167 

Conduct of Life. He delivered, at Concord, an oration on 
the death of President Lincoln in 1865, and received the 
degree of LL.D., from Harvard University in 1866. Mr. 
Emerson was unquestionably one of the most eminent 
modern philosophers of the Pantheistic school, and one of 
the most remarkable personifications of American genius. 

White. — Richard Grant White was born in New York 
City in 1822, and died at bis birthplace in 1885. He 
graduated from the University of his native city in 1839, 
and was admitted to the bar in 1845. Leaving practice 
of law for the pursuit of literature, he first contributed 
criticisms of art and literature, and then leading articles 
to the "New York Courier and Enquirer." Since 1861 Mr. 
White has been a constant contributor to the editorial 
columns of the "New York Times." His chief works are, 
Shakespeare's Scholar; National Hymns; An Essay upon 
the Authorshi}) of '■'■Henry the Sixth;'''' The Life avd Genins 
of Shakespeare; The New Gospel of Peace; and Words 
and their Uses. His Every- Day English appeared in 1880. 

l¥illard.— Mrs. Emma C. Willard, nee Hart, devoted 
the greater part of a long and most useful life to the edu- 
cation of women, in which her efforts, both as a theorist 
and as a practical teacher, were crowned with signal suc- 
cess. Her prominence as a writer, however, does not by 
any means correspond to that assigned to her by common 
consent as an educator. Still, she found time, in the midst 
of other duties of a most urgent character, to make sev- 
eral valuable contributions to the cause of letters. Among 
her most important works are: A History of the United 
States, and Universal History. Mrs. Willard was born in 
1787, and her death took place in 1870. 

Phelps.— Mrs. Almira Hart Lincoln Phelps, a sister of 
Mrs. Emma C. Willard, was born in 1793, and met her 
death at Baltimore, Md., in 1884, Almira was like her 
sister Emma, prominently identified with the first move- 
ments to raise the character of education for women, and 



168 THE examiner's companion. 

like her too made valuable contributions to the literature 
of instruction. For a long time her text-books, on Botany 
in particular, were the best in the market. 

Mann. — Horace Mann was born at Franklin, Mass., in 
1796, and died in 1859. Mr. Mann graduated at Brown 
University at Providence. He was elected in 1827 to the 
legislature of Massachusetts, and in 1836 to the State 
Senate, of which he became president. In 1837 he was 
elected Secretary of the Board of Education, and giving 
up business and politics, he devoted his whole time to the 
cause of education, and, in 1843, made a visit to educa- 
tional establishments in Europe. In 1848 he was elected 
to congr'ess; and at the end of his term, he accepted the 
presidency of Antioch College, at Yellow Springs, Ohio. 
His chief works are: Slavery; Letters mid Speeches; and 
numerous educational rej^orts. 

Ooodrich. — Samuel Griswold Goodrich, better known 
as " Peter Parley," was remarkably successful in simplify- 
ing various kinds of knowledge, chiefly historical, so as 
to make it easily understood by young readers, and conse- 
quently useful as a means of education. His birth occur- 
red at Ridgefield, Conn., in 1793, and he died in 1860. 
Mr. Goodrich's pen was kept busy to the close of his life; 
he being either author or editor of one hundred and 
seventy distinct volumes. He had a special gift for writ- 
ing in a style suited to the taste and comprehension of 
children, and he exercised his gift in a way that has 
brought lasting honor to him, and has been a public benefit 
to his race. The following are his classified works: Peter 
Parley Books^ 116 vols., on a great variety of subjects 
likely to interest children; School Books (Histories, Geog- 
raphic, Readers, etc.), 27 vols.; Miscellaneous, 27 vols. 

Sargent.— Epes Sargent is extensively known as the 
author of an admirable series of Readers and Speakers; 
as a critical editor of some of the standard English classics; 
and as the author of numerous original works, of a high 



AMERICAN I.ITKRATURE. 169 

character — both jirose and verse. Mr. Sargent's birth 
occurred in 1812, and he died at Boston in 18H0. 

Wickersham.— James Pyle Wickersham, State Supt. 
of Public Schools of Pa., was born in 1825. Mr. Wick- 
ersham has been one of the most successful of American 
educational workers. He has made the training of teachers 
his chief work, and has himself, been a practical teacher. 
He has written several volumes on educational matters, 
and in each department of effort he has been found equal 
to the occasion. His two books, School JiJconomy, and 
Methods of Instriictt'on, have had an enormous sale, and 
have taken their place among the standard works of the 
profession. He has also furnished numerous printed 
Addresses, and Contribxtlons to educational journals. 

Swioton.— William Swinton, Professor of English 
Literature in the University of California, was born in 
18-34, He first acquired general notoriety as a War 
Correspondent. Returning to literary pursuits after the 
late war, he soon won fresh laurels. An octavo volume 
of 500 pages, entitled The Ticelve Decisive Baffles of the 
War, has been published by Mr. Swinton, and also a 
series ot educational text-books. Among them may be 
named two school Histories of the United States • a Word- 
Hook of Spelling ,' an English Grammar; a Manual of 
Word Analysis, etc. 

Hoivells. — William Deane Howells was born at 
Martinsville, Ohio, in 1837. Brought up as a printer, in 
1858 he became co-editor of The Ohio State Jonr-nal; in 
1860 he issued, in connection with J. J. Piatt, a small 
volume of poems, entitled, Poems of Two Friends. Mr. 
Howells also wrote the lives of Abraham Lincoln and 
Hannibal Hamlin. In 1861 he was appointed United 
States Consul at Venice, which position he held until 
1865. His Venitian Life appeared about this time, 
followed h J Italian Journeys [\SQ1), JSTo Love Lost (1869), 
Suburban Sketches (1871), Their Wedding Journey (1812), 



170 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

A Chance Acquaintance (1873), A Woman's Reason, etc. 
In 1871 he assumed the editorship of the J[^/«?^^^'c i^/b?^^A^y, 
and has since resided at Cambridge. In 1885 he entered 
the services of Harper & Bros., New York, upon a liberal 
salary, and at the present writing maintains that position. 
Browne.— Charles Farrar Browne, known as "Artemus 
Ward," was born at Waterford, Maine, in 1S34, and died 
at Southampton, England, of consumption, in 1867. After 
some years spent at the printing-press, he became 
editorially connected with the journalistic profession, and 
in 1860 one of the promoters of Vanity Fair, a New York 
comic weekly. Later he traveled over the U. S., as a 
lecturer, drawing large audiences and achieving pro- 
portional success. In 1866 he visited England, and there 
repeated his lectures with profit, and became a contributor 
to Punch. His works, brimful of a quaint and dry humor, 
are well known under the titles of Artenms Ward, Sis 
Book; Artemus Ward Among the Mormons; Artemus 
Ward, His Panorama; Artemus Ward in London; 
Artemus Wai'd Amony the Fenians, etc. 

Shillaber.— Benjamin P. Shillaber, by his conception 
of the character of "Ruth Partington," has entitled himself 
to an equal place among genuine humorists. In fact the 
old lady has become, in the public mind, a living personage, 
almost as distinctly as "Artemus Ward" himself. Mr. 
Shillaber's birth occurred in the year 1814. 

Clemens.— Samuel Langhorne Clemens, whose nam de 
plume is " Mark Twain," was born at Florida, Mo., in 
1835. He was educated for a printer, and afterwards 
became a pilot on the Mississippi River. In 1861, he 
removed to Nevada, and in 1862, became editor of the 
Virginia City "Enterprise." Subsequently he removed 
East. Mark Twain is a river term, meaning two fathoms 
of water. His works have had a popular sale. Among 
them may be named: TJiq Innocents Abroad; TJie 
Jumping Frog; Houghing It; Nevada and Californian 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 171 

Experiences; The Gilded Age; The Adventures of HucTcle- 
berry Finn; Tom j^mnjer; and The Tramp Abroad. 
The first named work set the whole continent in a roar. 
It gives a humorous description of a visit to the old world 
by a ship-load of American excursionists. 

Shaw.— Henry W.Shaw, better known as "Josh Bil- 
lings," was born at Lanesborough, Mass., in 1818, and met 
his death in 1885, at Monterey, California. For twenty- 
five years he followed farming, and then established him- 
self in the auction business at Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Until 
he was forty-five years of age Mr. Shaw never wrote a line 
for publication, unless it was an occasional advertisement, 
'his first production, over the name of "Josh Billings," 
having been written May 25, 1863. His reputation as a 
humorist was, however, of rapid growth and his popular- 
ity soon became very great. Under these encouraging 
circumstances he then largely devoted his talents to writ- 
ing and public lecturing, with flattering success. His 
published works comprise several volumes of laughter- 
provoking sketches, and a series of annual collections of 
sharp and witty sentences on various topics in social life, 
under the name of " Josh BiUings''s Farmer's Alminax.'^ 
He has also published in book form Sayings of Josh Bil- 
lings; and Josh Billings on Ice. All his works have had 
an extensive circulation. 

Liocke.— David Ross Locke, familiar as " Petroleum V. 
Nasby," was born at Vestal, N. Y., in 1833. Educated as 
a printer, he became connected with several journals. In 
1865 he took editorial charge of the Toledo Blade, and 
since then became a popular lecturer. Mr. Locke com- 
menced his Mfsby Betters in 1860, and continued them 
until the close of the war. In 1868 appeared Sioingin 
Round the Cirkle, and Letters from Confederit X-Roads. 
One of his last enterprises is that of play-writing. A pop- 
ular comedy of his, entitled Wido^c Bedott, has met with 
good success on the theatrical boards. 



172 THE examiner's COMPANIOK. 

Peck. — George W. Peck, editor of the -well-known 
humorous journal of Milwaukee, Peck''s Sun, waS born in 
the village of Henderson, N. Y., in 1840. At the age of 
fifteen he began his professional career as " devil " (or 
apprentice lad) in the office of the Whitewater (Wis.) 
Register, where he remained until fitted for the duties of 
a journeyman printer. In 1860, with but three cents in 
his pocket, he purchased a half-interest in the Jefferson 
County Repuhlican, at Jefferson, Wis., and in company 
with Mr. J. E. Atwater, who edited the paper, he pub- 
lished it about a year, when they sold the establishment. 
In 1863, Mr. Peck joined a Wisconsin cavalry regiment as a 
private, and, by promotion, rose to a lieutenancy. In 
1866, his company was mustered out and he went to 
Ripon, Wis., where he started the Representative, a news- 
paper, which he conducted for about two years. In this 
journal appeared many odd and humorous paragraphs, 
similar to those which have made Peck'' 8 Sun so immensely 
popular, Mr. Peck was engaged for some time as editor 
on the LaCrosse (Wis.) Democrat (a paper published by 
"Brick" Pomeroy), and in 18*72 he became a half-owner 
of it, and altered its name to the Liberal Democrat. In 
18*74 he started a newspaper called the Sun, at LaCrosse, 
which even his humorous articles could not make self-sus- 
taining. Removing the paper to Milwaukee in 1878, he 
changed its name to PecFs Sun, gave it a new dress, and 
infused new energy and humor into its columns. 

Burdette.— Robert J. Burdette, whose writings are a 
source of continual merriment to their readers, was born 
at Greensboro, Pa., in 1844, and is of French, Welsh and 
German descent. Mr. Burdette received his education in 
the common schools of Peoria, 111., with a course at the 
high school, from which he graduated in 1861. From 
1862 to the close of 1865 he served as private in the late 
Rebellion, and then for seven years assisted in carrying on 
the local mail-service. In 1869 he became night-editor of 



AMERICAN LITERATURE. 173 

the Peoria (111.) Transcript. He was married to Miss 
Carrie Garrett, of Peoria, in 1870, and with that event 
began his successful carreer as an acknowledged humorist; 
for in this direction did his gentle wife greatly encourage 
him to persevere. For a time he continued with the 
Transcript as its city-editor; hut in 1871 he became one of 
the editors and part owner of the Peoria JEvening lieview, 
in which paper lie gave a loose rein to his mirthful pro- 
clivities, and laid the foundation of his subsequent fame. 
The newspaper, however, was but short lived, and in 1872, 
he obtained a situation as city-editor of the Burlington 
(Iowa) Haiokeye. By rapid promotion he advanced to the 
several positions of political and managing editor; but in 
1876, he relinquished the management of the paper and 
traveled and lectured to delighted audiences in the central 
States of the Union. A year later he extended his lecture- 
field to the East and elsewhere, and since then has devoted 
a large portion of his energies to that department of 
humor, while retaining the position of writer in the office 
of the Hawkeye. He has also published the following 
witty books: The Rise and Fall of the Moustache; Hawk- 
eye; and Life of Willia^n Penn. His lectures are respect- 
ively entitled ■ i?tse and Fall of the Moustache; Home; 
Pilgrimage of the Fanny-Man; and Advice to a 
Young Man. 



ENGLISH LITERATURE. 





Chancer.— Geoffrey Chaucer, the father of English 
poetry, was born in 1328, in London, and studied law. In 
1359 the poet served, and was taken prisoner, during the 
king's invasion of France; and, besides discharging other 
foreign missions, he was sent to Genoa in 1373, a journey 
which is supposed to have given him an interview with 
Petrarch. He received a house in the royal demesne of 
Woodstock; and there most of his works were written. 
He died in 1400, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, his chief poem, is replete 
with a deep insight into the springs and working of human 
character, intense love of nature, pure and lofty feeling, 
abundant humor, piercing wit, and that genial tempera- 
ment which lights up all around with the sunshine of a fine 
mind and generous disposition. Some of his minor works 
are: Romaunt of the Rose; The Court of Love; Troilus 
and Creseide; House of Fame; TJie Flower and the Leaf; 
Legende of Goode Women, and a prose-work, entitled 
The Testament of Love. 

ISpenser.— Edmund Spenser, one of the most eminent 
of English poets, was born in London, in 1553. His name 
in English literature ranks second to that of Chaucer. 

(174) 



E^JGLISH LITEEATtJKE. 175 

After graduating at Cambridge, he produced in 1579 his 
charming pastoral, Tlie ^hephercVs (7a/e?if?«r, and dedicated 
it to his friend Sir Philip Sidney. In 1580, he became 
secretary to Lord Grey de Wilton, Viceroy of Ireland, and 
received a grant of .3,028 acres of forfeited lands in the 
county of Cork, Avhere he fixed his residence at Kilcolman 
Castle, and became the friend and associate of Sir Walter 
Raleigh. In 1598, he served as sheriff of the county, lost 
his castle and estate during the Earl of Tyrone's Rebellion, 
and died, all in the same year, his body being buried in 
Westminster Abbey, near the dust of the honored Chaucer. 
Spenser has been styled the English " Ariosto," and, as 
the author of The Faerie Queene, will ever hold his place 
as one of the world's great poets. 

Sackville.— Thomas Sackville, Earl of Dorset, and 
Lord High Treasurer of England, a poet, was born in 1536 
at Buckhurst in Sussex, and his death took place in 1608. 
He was a man of note in letters, as well as in affairs of 
state. In 155*7, Sackville formed the design of a poem, 
entitled The Mirror of 3Iagistrates, M^'iting only The 
Introduction and one Legend, that on the life of Henry 
Stafford, Duke of Buckingham. In imitation of Dante 
and some others of his predecessors, Sackville lays the 
scene of his poem in the infernal regions, to which he 
descends under the guidance of an allegorical personage 
named Sorrow. It was his object to make all the great 
persons of English history, from the Conquest downwards, 
pass here in review, and each tell his own story, as a 
warning to existing statesmen. 

Milton.— John Milton, the most illustrious of the 
English poets, was born in London, in 1608, and graduated 
at Cambridge University in 1632. The next few years he 
passed in rural retirement, engaged in the production of 
his fine poems, Cotnos, U' Allegro, II Penseroso, and 
Lycidas. In 1638, while on a tour in Italy, he formed an 
acquaintance with Galileo. In 1644 appeared his greatest 



176 THE examinee's COMPANION. 

prose work, Areo2yagitica, or a Plea for Unlicensed Print- 
ing — one of the earliest appeals for the liberty of the 
press. In 1648-9, after the accession of Cromwell to 
power, Milton, a rei^ublican in political principles, was 
appointed Latin secretary to the Council of State, and in 
this capacity replied to the strictures of Salmasius in the 
well-known Defence of the EnglUh Peoj^le, written in 
Latin, in 1650. In 1654 his eyesight left him, and shortly 
afterward he commenced his immortal epic — the Paradise 
Lost, the copyright of which he sold in 1667 for the sum 
of £5 ! Later appeared Samson Agonistes, a tragedy, 
and Paradise Regained^ a work which is far below the 
merits of his earlier works, although Milton, it is said, 
accounted it his masterpiece. He died in London, in 1674. 
Dryclen.— John Dryden, one of the greatest of English 
poets, was born of Puritan parents, on the 9th day of 
August, 1631, at Aldwinckle in Northamptonshire, died and 
was buried in Westminster Abbey in 1700. He was first 
educated at Westminster, under the famous Dr. Busby, 
and afterwards at Trinity College, Cambridge. Dryden's 
plays are twenty-nine in number, running through thirty- 
two years of his life. Among the chief plays written by 
him may be mentioned: The Indian Emperor, and 
The Conquest of the Granada. When the great Oliver 
died, Dryden created considerable sensation by a copy of 
verses which he wrote ujjon the sad event. Some time 
later he celebrated the restoration of Charles Stuart in a 
poem called Astrcea Redux. Inheriting only a small estate, 
Dryden was compelled to follow literature as a profession, 
and devoted his pen at first to the service of the newly- 
opened theatres. The Wild Gallant being his first play. 
His earlier plays are written in rhyming verse, his later 
ones in blank verse. But in all his plays, rhyming or 
unrhyming, heroic or comic, he is fully open to the charge 
of immorality. Dryden was an elegant prose writer, as 
well as poet, and few English authors have writtefi prose 



ENCiLlSH LITERATURE. 177 

SO well. Towards the close of his life he embraced the 
Catholic religion, and wrote the Hind and Panther in 
defence of his new opinions. 

Pope,— Alexander Pope, an eminent English poet and 
satirist, was born in London in 1G88, and died at 
Twickenham in 1744. His verse is famous for its easy 
numbers, its keenness of satire, and its brilliance of polish. 
As a master of invective and sarcasm, he has scarce a rival. 
His Essay on Man; Rape of the Lock; Essay on 
Criticism; Pastorals; Imitations of Horace, The Dunciad, 
a satire; and the translations of the Iliad and Odyssey, are 
among his best productions. Pope also excelled as a 
prose writer, as witness his celebrated letters. 

Thomson.— James Thomson was born at Ednam in 
lYOO, and departed this life in 1748. He is one of those 
minor poets who are read by each successive generation 
with about equal favor. His fame is as high now, perhaps, 
as it was during his lifetime, possibly higher. His 
descriptions of English scenery, because of their faith- 
fulness to nature, are much read by foreigners, especially by 
Germans. The Castle of Indolence, an allegorical poem in 
the Spenserian stanza, and The Seasons, are his finest works. 

Goldsmith.— Oliver Goldsmith was born at the little 
village of Pallas, in the county of Longford, Ireland, in 
1728, and met his death in 1774. He is classed among the 
poets, but might as well be named with the novelists, his- 
torians, or with the ethical writers, for he belongs to each 
of those classes. After attending Trinity College, Dublin, 
for a short period of time. Goldsmith was then sent to 
London to engage upon the study of the law, but while 
here he spent the money set apart for his traveling 
expenses, in gambling, and returned home penniless. He 
next studied for two years at Edinburgh, and a year at 
Leyden. From the latter place he set out to make the tour 
of Europe, with " one clean shirt, and no money in his 
pocket.'" By the aid of his flute he managed to pay his 
12 



178 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

way over a great part of the Continent, during which he 
stayed for half a year at Padua University, where he took 
his degree of doctor of medicine. On his return to London 
he devoted himself to literature, and in 1762 produced 
The Vicar of Wakefield, the most exquisite of all 
romances in miniature. Two years later, his poem of 
The Traveler confirmed Goldsmith's reputation. In 1770, 
The Deserted Village, a poetic idyl whose descriptive 
force and plaintive tenderness has no rival in English 
literature, appeared. Among his other works are: She 
Stoops to Conquer, 2i comedy; dkudi History of the Earth and 
Animated Nature. 

Gray. — Thomas Gray first saw the light of day at 
London in 1716, and died with gout in his stomach in 
l77l. This poet was educated at Cambridge, in which 
University he became professor of Modern Literature in 
1769. His industry was untiring, and his learning 
undoubtedly great; for he had pushed his researches far 
beyond the usual limits of ancient classical philology, 
and was deeply versed in the romance literature of the 
Middle Ages, in modern French and Italian, and had 
studied the then almost unknown departments of Scandi- 
navian and Celtic poetry. His finest lyric compositions 
are the Odes entitled The Bard, that on the Progress of 
Poesy, the Installation Ode on the Duke of Grafton's 
election to the Chancellorship of the University, and the 
short but truly noble Ode to Adversity. Gray is best 
known by his famous Elegy Written in a Country Church- 
yard. It is one of the most perfect compositions of its 
kind in the language. 

Cowper.— William Cowper, a very prominent English 
poet, was born in Hertfordshire in 1731, and died at 
"Weston in 1800. Mr. Cowper is eminently the poet of the 
domestic aft'ections, and the exponent of that strong 
religious feeling which, towards the end of the eighteenth 
century, began to penetrate and modify all the relations 



ENGLISH LITEEATTJEE. 179 

of social life. Cowper attended Westminster School, 
where he served an apprenticeship of seven years to the 
classics, and then he was apprenticed to an attorney, and 
with him remained three years, being admitted to the bar 
in 1754. Soon after he opened a law-office, but gained no 
clients. Four times during Cowper's life madness assailed 
him, and for nearly two years he was an inmate of a 
private asylum at St. Albans. His poetical talent did not 
flower until he was more than fifty years of age, when 
his first volume was published. It contained long 
didactic and satiric poems entitled Table Talk; The 
Progress of Error; Truth; Expostulation; Ilojye; Char- 
ity; Conversation^ and Metirement. Some more of Cow- 
per's favorite works are: John Gilpin, whose comical 
equestrianism became the subject of a famous ballad; The 
Task, a work which at once commanded popular favor; 
The Time-piece; The Garden; The Wi?iter Evening; The 
Winter Morning Walk; The Winter Walk at Noon; 
Tirocinium, a review of schools; Translation of Homer 
into English Verse; and Verses to My Mother''s Picture, 
there being no more touching and beautiful lines in English 
poetry or prose than these verses. 

Burns.— Robert Burns, the greatest poet that Scotland 
has ever produced, was born at the hamlet of Alloway, in 
Ayrshire, in 1759, and passed from this earth at Dumfries 
in 1796. He early became noted among his neighbors 
for his verses and his social qualities. In 1786, he pub- 
lished his poems, which at once attained a high and 
deserved popularity, and secured for him a reputation sur- 
passing that of any Scottish author before him. The 
poems and songs of Burns have won enthusiastic admira- 
tion from all classes of society. His themes are such as 
all can comprehend, and his speech simple and true; and 
there is no fear of his fame diminishing. In his poetry, 
as in his life, alas! there is much that is impure, the utter- 
ance of sensual passion; nothing mean and ignoble j and 



180 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

some most pathetic penitential breathings that may well 
abate the severity of censure. Among his writings may 
be named: The Jolly Beggars; To a Daisy and a Mouse; 
The Cotter's Saturday Night; Elegy on Captain Mattheic 
Henderson; and above all, the serio-comic tale of 
Tain C Shanter. 

Byron.— George Gordon, Lord Byron, the greatest 
English poet of his day, was born at London in 1788. He 
succeeded his grand-uncle in the peerage and estates while 
still a boy. After studying at Harrow and Cambridge, 
and while yet a minor, he published his Hours of Idleness, 
a collection of clever but immature poems. The severe 
criticism passed upon them by the "Edinburgh Review," 
brought out their author's real genius in the scathing 
satire English Bards and Scotch Reviewers. Disappointed 
in his early love, Byron became noted as a man about 
town, and so impaired his fortune as to compel his retire- 
ment to the Continent. There he produced one of his 
grandest works, Childe HaroWs Pilgrimage; others fol- 
lowed in rapid succession, and the noble poet, as he him- 
self says, "awoke one day to find himself famous." In 
1815, he married, and after a year of infelicity, parted 
from his wife, and left England, never to return. Abroad 
he took up his residence in Venice and other cities, and 
wrote the concluding cantos of his Childe Harold, some 
minor poems, and Bon Juan, admitted to be his finest 
work. In 1823, he resolved to devote his person, sword, 
pen, and fortune to the cause of Greek independence; but 
contracting a fever soon after his arrival in Greece, he died 
at Missolonghi, in 1824, to the inexpressible grief of the 
Greek nation. In 1869, Mrs. H. B. Stowe published: in 
the "Atlantic Monthly" an article entitled T'he True Story 
of Lady Byron, in which she alleged against the memory 
of the great poet a monstrous charge, that was generally 
received with much disfavor. 

Moore.— Thomas Moore, a great Irish poet — the " Bard 



ENGLISH LITERATURE, 181 

of Erin," as he is sometimes called — was born at Dublin, 
in 1779, and died at London in 1852. Having studied at 
Trinity College, he entered the Middle Temple in London 
as a student of law, but soon began his long and brilliant 
career as a poet. His first important literary undertaking 
was a translation of the Odes of Anacreoji, a work far too 
brilliant and ornamental in its language to give a correct 
idea of the manner of the Greek poet. Moore's most 
important works are Lalla Mookh, a long poem, founded 
on Eastern legend and gorgeous with oriental imagery, 
and his Irish llelodies, the latter which are unquestionably 
his best. His chief prose writings are the three biogra- 
phies of Sheridan, Byron, and Lord Edward Fitzgerald, 
and the tale of The Epicurean, the last being a narrative 
of the first ages of Christianity. 

Campbell.— Thomas Campbell, a poet of note, who 
distinguisKed himself by his translations from the Greek 
poets, was born at Glasgow in 1777, and died at Boulogne 
in 1844. He was educated at the Glasgow University, and 
in his twenty-second year published the Pleasures of Hope. 
This poem was received with hearty enthusiasm, being the 
one on which his reputation mainly rests. Shortly after-* 
wards he traveled abroad, where he was a spectator of the 
battle of Hohenlinden, and commemorated the scene in 
the brilliant poem with which we are all familiar. While 
abroad, he wrote two other of his most popular lyrics. Ye 
Mariners of England, and The Exile of Erin. On return- 
ing to Scotland, he wrote LochieVs Warning; The Battle 
of the Baltic; The -Pilgrim of Glencoe, and other poems. 
In prose, Campbell won considerable praise for the critical 
notices attached to his Specimens of the British Poets. As 
a writer of national songs he has never been surpassed. 

Wordsworth.— William Wordsworth, the founder of 
the so-called Lake School of poetry, was born at Cocker- 
mouth, in the north of England, in 1770, died and was 
buried in the church-yard of Grasmere in 1850. He was 



182 THE examiner's COMPANIOlSr. 

the son of an attorney, and became a student of St. John's 
College, Cambridge, where he took his B, A. degree in 
1791. Wordsworth gave his first poetic effusions to the 
world in 1793, under the title of An Evening Walk' in 
1798, Lyrical Ballads appeared, the joint but uneven pro- 
duction of Wordsworth, and Coleridge. From this time 
up to 1815 he published a new edition of Lyrical LaUads, 
Sonnets, Essays on Epitaphs, The Excursion, The Prelude, 
Peter Bell, The Waggoner, and many minor pieces. About 
this time he received the appointment of distributor of 
stamps, and in 1843 he obtained the office of poet-laureate, 
vacant by the death of South ey. For many years Words- 
worth enjoyed that guerdon of love and admiration which 
are too frequently reserved for departed genius; and 
thousands of his admirers made a pilgrimage to the poet's 
home, Rydal Mount. His autobiographical poem, The 
Prelude, or the Grovth of a Poefs Mind, was a posthumous 
publication. Memoirs of Wordsworth were published 
soon after his death by his nephew. Canon Wordsworth. 
The complete poetical works of Wordsworth, edited by 
the late Henry Reed, Professor of Literature in the Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania, have been published in Philadel- 
phia, (T. Ellwood Zell, royal 8vo). Mr. Reed, in return- 
ing from a pilgrimage to Rydal Mount, was lost in the ill- 
fated steamer Arctic, September, 1854. 

Tennyson.— Alfred Tennyson, an English poet-laure- 
ate, was born at Soraersby in Lincolnshire in 1810, edu- 
cated at Cambridge, and from there carried off the Eng- 
lish prize-poem in 1829. Tennyson stands at the head of 
English poets in the passing generation, and in his own 
department of literature is the representative man of the 
age — caressed by the critics, admired by all, and imitated 
by not a few. He rose by slow degrees into full and com- 
plete recognition, and nothing is more noteworthy in his 
career than the calm deliberation and design with which 
every part of his career as an author has been planned. His 



ENGLISH LITERATURE. 183 

first independent volume apj)eared in 1830, under the title, 
Poems, principally lyrical. The Princess appeared in 
1847, which was atfirst a puzzle to the critics. It is now rec- 
ognized in its true character, as a profound and artistic 
handling of a great living question. In 1849 appeared his 
masterpiece, Li Memoriam, in commemoration of a 
young friend and schoolmate, Arthur Henry Hallom, who 
had died sixteen years before. Maud, and other Poems 
were published by Tennyson in 1855. His poem Mcmd is 
scarcely so fine a work as many that preceded it from the 
same pen. Success has crowned him in setting before us 
the brilliant and the darker sides of that old and well- 
nigh forgotten life, in the four tales which form The Idylls 
of the King. In 1864 appeared a work, entitled Enoch 
Arden, a touching domestic story of humble life, together 
with Aylnier''s Field, and some minor poems, of which the 
principal are Tithonus and the Northern Farmer. Tenny- 
son's style of writing is the most finished since the days 
of Shakespeare and Milton, 

Shakespeare. — William Shakespeare is, by the common 
consent of mankind, the greatest dramatist and writer 
that the world has ever produced. He was born at Strat- 
ford-on-Avon, Warwickshire, in 1564, and departed this 
life at his native town in 1616. Of the incidents of his 
youth almost nothing is known, excepting that he married 
in his nineteenth year, and soon afterward resorted to 
London, where he became an actor of repute at the Globe 
and Blackfriars' theaters. In 1594 he inaugurated his 
literary career by the publication of his poem Venus and 
Adonis; and in the following year his first published play 
appeared, the precursor of a succession of works which 
constitute the crowning glory of English dramatic litera- 
ture. Shakespeare enjoyed the favor of Queen Elizabeth 
and James I., and the friendship of Southampton, Raleigh, 
Ben Johnson, and other of the principal of his contempo- 
raries. After realizing an easy fortune by his contribu- 



184 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

tions to the stage, he retired to Stratford to remain the 
last few years of his life. His tragedies of Hamlet^ Mac- 
beth, Othello, Borneo and Juliet, and King Lear, are won- 
derful examples of his power of expressing the strongest 
passions of the human soul; while, on the other hand, his 
comedies, particularly The Merry Wives of Windsor, 
3luch Ado aboiit N'othing, Twelfth JSFlght, The Taming of 
the Shreio, etc., are unsurpassed in the English lan- 
guage. Of his dramas, strictly so-called, perhaps the finest 
are. As You Like It, The Merchant of Venice and The 
Tempest. 

Jonson.— Ben Jonson, the friend and contemporary of 
Shakespeare, was born at London in 1574, and died in 
1637. Although compelled by his step-father to follow 
the trade of a bricklayer, he succeeded in making himself 
one of the most learned men of the age. He was for a 
time a pupil of the famous Camden, at the Westminster 
school, and entered the University, though his stay there 
was very brief, being taken from his studies, and forced to 
carry a hod among his father's workmen. The sturdy boy 
rebelled at this, turned soldier, and soon gained distinction 
by his manly courage on the battle-grounds of the Low 
Countries. When but twenty years of age, he entered 
fully upon the dramatic career, first as an actor, then as 
an assistant to other dramatists in the composition of plays, 
and finally as an original dramatist. His first original 
piece, by which he sprang at once into fame, entitled 
Every Man in His Humor, is assigned to the year 1596. 
As first represented it was a failure, and Shakespeare, then 
at the height of his popularity, is said to have interested 
himself in behalf of the young aspirant, suggesting 
changes in the play, securing its acceptance by the mana- 
gers of the Globe, and himself taking a prominent part, 
when, two years later, it was brought out with triumphant 
success. Some more of Jonson's chief works are: Every 
Man Out of His Humor ; Cynthia! s Revels j The Poetaster ^ 



ENGLISH LITERATURE. 185 

Tlie Tale of a Tub; Sejanusj Catiline; Vblpone; Epicene; 
and The Alchyinist. 

Marlowe.— Christopher Marlowe, the greatest of the 
precursors of Shakespeare, was born at Canterbury in 1564, 
and died in 1593, by being stabbed in the head with his 
own dagger, which he had drawn in a quarrel with an 
antagonist. He received an excellent education, and was 
graduated at Cambridge. On leaving the University he 
joined a troop of actors, among whom he was remarkable 
for vice and debauchery, and was strongly suspected by 
his contemporaries of being an atheist. Marlowe's works 
are not numerous; but they show an air of astonishing 
energy and elevation. His first great play was the tragedy 
of Tamburlaine the Great, and is thought to have been 
brought out while the author's name was still on the Cam- 
bridge books. Then followed his second and best work a 
drama entitled The Life and Death of Dr. Faiistus. The 
tragedy of the Jen; of Malta, though inferior to Faustus, 
is characterized by similar merits and defects. The tragedy 
of Edward II., was the last of Marlowe's works. He also 
wrote a very charming poem called The Passionate 
Shejjherd. 

Wycliffe.— John Wycliffe, who first gave a complete 
copy of the Scripture to the English people in the English 
tongue, was born at Yorkshire in 1324, and died as Rector 
of Lutterworth, a. Leicestershire parish, of paralysis, in 
1384. He is known among Protestants as "The Morning 
Star of the Reformation," and may be styled the Father 
of English Prose, as well as Chaucer is the Father of 
English Poetry. Wycliffe was educated at Merton, which 
was once considered the most learned college in Oxford. 
As a writer his great merit lies in having given to England 
the first English version of the whole Bible, His Latin 
works are very numerous. One of the principal was 
called Trialogus, which embodies his opinions in a series 
of conversations carried on by Truth, Wisdom, and 



186 THE examiner's companion. 

Falsehood. He also wrote many treatises, some leai-ned, 
addressed to scholars and the higher orders, and some in 
homely phrase, addressed to the common people. But his 
chief literary work was A Translation of the Holy Bible. 

Mandevillo.— Sir John Mandeville, a prose writer, 
born at St. Albans, in Hertfordshire, in 1300, and dying 
in 1372, is the earliest notable instance of the genuine 
English Traveler. Mandeville left home at the age of 
twenty-seven, and traveled for thirty-four years, going first 
to Jerusalem, and then on eastward into the remotest parts 
of Asia. On returning he wrote a book of Voyage and 
Travel, describing some of the marvelous things that he 
had seen. This book. was written by him at first in Latin, 
then in French, then in English, and was translated into 
Italian, Spanish, Dutch, and German. Mandeville was 
educated for the medical profession, but having an 
irresistible desire to travel, abandoned his profession, to a 
great extent, although his knowledge of medicine often 
stood his friend among the rude tribes he encountered 
while traveling. He again left England, and after roving 
around for some time, died, and was buried at Liege. 

More.— Sir Thomas More, who stands pre-eminent 
among prose-writers of his period, was born in Milk Street, 
London, in 1480, and met his death for justly thwarting 
the will of the king by being beheaded in 1535. More was 
a man of profound scholarship, of earnest piety, of quick 
and ready wit, and one of the most conspicuous and shining 
characters in the reign of Henry VIII. Holding the 
honorable position of Lord High Chancellor of England, 
he was considered next to Erasmus and Cardinal Wolsey 
in eminence and fame. At an early age More devoted 
himself to law, and at seventeen entered the college at 
Oxford, where he won the friendship of the eminent 
Erasmus. More's fame as a writer rests on two works, 
written during that period of his life, when he was a busy 
lawyer, enjoying the sunshine of royal favor and the solid 



ENGLISH LITEKATURE. 187 

advantage of a handsome yearly income. These works 
are: Life ami Reign of Edtcard V., and The Utojyia, the 
latter being a work of wide fame. 

Bacon.— Francis Bacon, Lord Verulam, and Viscount St. 
Alban's, a prose writer, and one of the greatest of modern 
philosophers, was born at London in 1561, and departed this 
life at Highgate in 1026, Entering parliament in 1593, he 
was knighted in 1603, and in 1613 became attorney gen- 
eral and privy councillor. The office of Lord Keeper was 
given him in 1617, and he was soon afterwards made Lord 
Chancellor. But from this time dates the beginning of 
his miserable fall. Complaints were made of his venality 
as a judge, which on inquiry by a parliamentry committee 
were verified. Bacon then made full confession, was 
deprived of his offices, fined, and imprisoned during the 
royal pleasure. He was ultimately pardoned, but contin- 
ued to live in retirement, devoting himself to his favorite 
studies. The great aim of this extraordinary man was to 
reform the methods of philosophy; he recalls men from 
blindly following authority to the observation and exami- 
nation of nature. His Essays were published in 1597, 
but his greatest works are the Novmn Organum (1603) 
and the De Augmentis Scientiarum (1620). 

De Foe.— Daniel De Foe, the son of a London butcher, 
was born at that place in 1661 and died in 1731. He is 
chiefly known as the author of that immortal book, Mob- 
inson Crusoe, which has given him rank among the ablest 
prose writers of his country. His style is both graphic and 
concentrated, and as a model of English composition i,4 
only surpassed by the prose writings of Addison. Edu- 
cated for the ministry in a dissenting sect, De Foe chose 
a mercantile life, at various times carrying on the business 
of a hosier, a tile-maker, and a woolen draper. For severe 
political attacks against his nation, he suffered the pillory, 
imprisonment, and fine. The number of works written 
by him were many. No English writer has ever excelled 



188 THE examiner's companion. 

De Foe in his power of painting fictitious events in the 
colors of truth. The Relation of 3Irs. VeaTs Apparition, 
prefixed to Drelincourt on Death, affords, perhaps, the best 
specimen of his wonderful power of clothing fiction with 
the garb of truth. 

Addison. — Joseph Addison, whose fame rests upon his 
prose works, was born at Milston, in Wiltshire in 1672, 
and died at London in 1719. At the age of fifteen years 
he entered Queen's College, and two years later secured a 
scholarship at Magdalen College, where he distinguished 
himself by the style of his scholarship, and by his taste in 
Latin poetry. His first attempt in English verse was an 
Address to Dryden, by which the old poet's friendship 
was won. From the writing of a poem for the Govern- 
ment entitled The Campaign, the career of Addison was 
brilliant and prosperous. He was appointed Under Sec- 
retary of State, and afterwards Chief Secretary of Ireland. 
The publication of The Campaign, above mentioned, had 
been followed by that of his Travels in Italy, exhibiting 
proofs not only of his graceful scholarship, but also of his 
delicate humor, his benevolent morality, and his deep 
religious spirit. In 1707 he gave to the world his pleasing 
and graceful opera of Rosamond, and about this time The 
Drummer, was also written by him. Addison's best known 
poems are: The Campaign, and the tragedy of Gato. His 
chief prose writings are essays contributed to The Father 
and The Spectator. 

Swift. — Jonathan Swift, another prose writer, eminent 
divine and humoristic author, was born at Dublin in 1667, 
and died in 1745. After graduating at Trinity College, in 
his native city, he filled for some time the position of Sec- 
retary to Sir William Temple, and taking his M. A. degree 
at Oxford in 1692, entered holy orders. Swift changed 
liis politics as he changed his wig; and, after having pub- 
lished a pamphlet entitled The Conduct of the Allies, in 
which he urged the abandonment of the war against 



ENGLISH LITERATURE. 



189 



France, was rewarded therefor by government with the 
deanery of St. Patrick's, Dublin. Swift's writings deserv- 
edly hold a high place in literature. His wit and humor, 
though somewhat coarse after the manner of his day, pos- 
sess a pungency of flavor that has been compared with 
that of dry champagne. His powers of description were 
only equalled by De Foe among his contemporaries. His 
masterpiece is usually accounted to be The Tale of a Tub, 
than which nothing can be fuller of dry, quaint, painted 
humor— not even the pages of Rabelais. Among his other 
notable productions may be cited The Battle of the Books, 
and that perennial sermon in burlesque, the Travels of 
Lemuel Gulliver. 

JoliiisoBi.— Samuel Johnson, a miscellaneous prose 
writer, English lexicographer and author, was born at 
Lichfield in 1109, educated at Oxford, and died at London 
in 1784. After some years' employment in scholastic 
labors, he repaired to London in 1737, where he com- 
menced a literary career, obscure in its opening, glorious 
ere its close. In 1747 he commenced upon the great work 
of his life, the Dictionary of the English Language— the 
first complete publication of the kind. His other produc- 
tions comprise The Rambler; the Life of Richard Savage, 
the poet; Rasselas; and the Lives of the English Poets, 
etc. Dr. Johnson was pre-eminently the literary " lion " 
of his time and country— the sun, so to speak, around 
which irradiated Burke, Goldsmith, Reynolds, Gibbon, 
and other lesser stars. 

Hume,— David Hume, who is classed among the mis- 
cellaneous prose writers, is universally known as the 
author of the most popular IBstory of England yet writ- 
ten; said history being esteemed for two generations the 
ablest work of its class, although claimed by many critics 
to be open to objection on the score of scepticism and 
undue i)artiality. After unsuccessfully following several 
occupations, Hume, at the age of twenty-three, went to 



190 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

France, and passed three years in close attention to philos- 
ophy and general literature. Then returning to Great 
Britain he published the first-fruits of his pen, A Treatise 
on Jl/onan JVciture, which was unsuccessful. In 1742 he 
published two volumes of Moral and Philosophical Essays 
which met with a more favorable reception. To Hume's 
great work the History of England^ formerly mentioned, 
he afterwards added the earlier history, from the invasion 
of Julius Csesar to the reign of James I. In philosophy 
and in religion his views were those of a sceptic. Pie 
doubted almost everything, and attacked the Christian 
faith, especially by striving to cut away the foundations 
on which our belief in miracles rests. Hume was born at 
Edinburgh in 1 V 1 1, educated at the University of his native 
city, and died in the beautiful city of his birth in 1776. 

Burke— Edmund Burke, a miscellaneous prose writer, 
who stands foremost among English political writers and 
orators, was a man of such powerful and versatile genius 
that he has been likened to Bacon. Burke was born in 
1730, in a house on Arran Quay, Dublin, graduated at 
Trinity College in his native city, and died at his home 
near Beaconsfield in 1797. In early life he went to Eng- 
land to study law, but his tastes soon led him into literary 
work, and he became a regular writer for the magazines. 
His first reputation was gained by The Yindication of 
Natural Society, an ironical imitation of the style and sen- 
timents of Lord Bolingbroke; this work being followed by 
his well-known Essay on the Sublime and Seautiful, 
which has since been regarded as one of the classics in our 
literature. Disliking his political career which he now 
began as secretary to the Chief Secretary of Ireland, he 
soon received an appointment from the Marquis of Rock- 
ingham, The Prime Minister, and at once commenced his 
long public life of honor and activity. He sat in the 
House of Commons, and was one of the most prominent 
debaters during the agitated periods of the American and 



ENGLISH LITERATURE. 191 

the French Revolutions, The reign of terror in France 
was foreseen by Burke, Avhen he wrote his greatest work, 
called Reflections on the Revolution in France. His Letter 
to a Kohle Lord ranks high among the products of his pen. 
But the greatest work of Burke's public life was his 
Impeachment of Warren Hastings, in which he played the 
most prominent part. Other works of his last years were 
Letters on a Regicide Peace and Observations on the Con- 
duct of tJie Minority. 

Gibbon. — Edward Gibbon, a miscellaneous prose 
writer, was born at Putney, near London, in ITST and died 
at the latter place, of a disease which had long been prey- 
ing on his strength, in 1794. Much of Gibbon's early 
education was received from his aunt. In 1752 he became 
a gentleman commoner of Magdalen College, Oxford. The 
first-fruits of his pen appeared in French, an essay on the 
Stadi/ of Literatnre. Between 1763 and 1765 he traveled 
over France, Italy, and Switzerland. In 1776 he published 
the fii'st volume of his history. The Decline and Fall of 
the Roman Kmioire, which work at once caused the author 
to spring into literary fame. In 1781 the second and 
third volumes made their appearance; soon after which 
the historian, disappointed in his hopes of a permanent 
government post, retired to the house of a literary friend 
at Lausanne, where he wrote the rest of the work. 

Walker. — John Walker, an English lexicographer, 
who may be classed among the miscellaneous prose 
writers, is widely known from his connection with the 
English Dictionary. Leaving the stage he engaged himself 
in teaching school, and in two years abandoned this pro- 
fession to deliver public lectures on Elocution, which 
proved a success. His Pronouncing Dictionary became 
an authority, not on the ground of his dictum, but because 
he had carefully and judiciously selected for each word or 
set of words that pronunciation which was used by genteel 
and educated people. It was an exact exhibit, prepared 



192 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

by an expert, of the actual pronunciation of English words 
by good society. The work was so well done that it helped 
greatly to fix what is in itself arbitrary and fluctuating, 
and Walker's pronunciation has continued accordingly 
without material change to the present day. He was 
born in Middlesex in 1732, and died in 1807. 

Murray.— Lindley Murray, whom we may class as a 
miscellaneous prose writer, holds about the same relation 
to English Grammar that Walker holds to the English 
Dictionary. Murray's Grammar was, to many generations 
of school-boys and school-girls, the court in the last resort 
on all questions of correct speaking and writing. Though 
an American by birth and education, Murray is classed 
as an English writer, as he became an Englishman by 
residence, and wrote all his works in England. He was 
born at Swatara, Pennsylvania, in 1745, educated in Phila- 
delphia, at an academy of the Society of Friends, to which 
body he belonged, and died near York, England, in 1826. 
He began as a lawyer; abandoned law for the counting- 
house; retired early with a competence; and then lived for 
some years on the Hudson, three miles above New Yoi-k. 
In 1784, being a little over forty, he removed to England, 
and lived there the remainder of his days. His principal 
works were his English G-rammar and his English Header. 
Murray's English Header, with the Introduction, and the 
&equel,'\\2i^ an enormous sale both in England and America. 

Taylor.— Jeremy Taylor was born at Cambridge, in 
1613, became chaplain to Charles I., and in 1660 bishop of 
Down and Connor. He was a thoroughly educated man, 
and from his early years was conspicuous on account of 
his talents and his learning. The best known of Taylor's 
controversial writings is the treatise On the Liberty of 
Prophesying. His woi-k entitled an Apology for Fixed 
and Set Forms of Worship, was an elaborate defence of 
the noble ritual of the Anglican Church. Among his 
other works may be named, The Life of Christ, or th^ 



ENGLISH LITER d.TURE. 193 

Great Exemplar; On the Rule and Exercises of Holy 
Living ; On the Rule and Exercise of Holy Dying^ and 
Ductor Dubitantium. His Sermons are quite numerous, 
and are among the most eloquent, learned, and powerful 
in the whole range of Chi'istian literature. His death 
occurred at Lisburn in 1667. 

Bnnyaii.— John Bunyan, the master of religious 
allegory, came from the lowest grade of social life, grew 
up to manhood with an education so meagre that he barely 
knew how to read or write, and yet he produced a work 
which places him foremost among the writers of his class. 
Bunyan was born at Elstow, a mile from Bedford, in the 
year 1628, and died at his birth-place of fever in 1688. 
This celebrated man was the author of a noble work 
entitled Pilgrims Progress, which was partly written in 
Bedford Gaol. The 10th edition appeared in 1685. No 
book but the " Bible, and the Imitation of Jesus Christ," 
has been translated into so many languages, and it has as 
long been the delight of the educated and refined, as it 
was at first of the poor and ignorant. His great work 
narrates the experience of a Christian in going from a life 
of sin to everlasting bliss. Bunyan's works are numerous, 
and entirely of a religious character. The religious 
autobiography entitled Grace Abounding to the Chief of 
Sinners, and the religious allegory called the Holy 'War, 
ai-e two more of his excellent works. Bunyan was 
evidently a dreamer; and he tells us in this first book 
that, from his childhood, he has been haunted by fearful 
visions of the lake of fire. 

Fox.— George Fox, founder of the Society of Friends, 
was born in county Leicester, England, in 1G24, and 
departed this life in London, in 1690. He was chiefly 
distinguished by his apostolic zeal and labors as a preacher. 
Early adopting the peculiar tenets and manners known as 
Quakerism, he suffered for many years continual perse- 
cution. In 1671 he sailed for the West Indies and the 
13 



194 THE EXAMINER'S COMPANIOX. 

American colonies, to propagate the doctrines of the sect 
he had originated; and on his return to England, in 1673, 
he was again imprisoned, but soon released through the 
influence of William Penn. After the accession of William 
III., to the throne, the public worship of the Society of 
Friends became tolerated and legalized. Among the 
principal writings of Fox are the following: Journal of his 
Life and Travels; Collection of Christian ^Jjnstles, Lexers, 
and Testimonies/ and Gospel Truth Demonstrated in a Col- 
lection of Doctrinal Jiooks. 

Penn.— William Penn, a celebrated member of the 
Society of Friends, and the founder of the Commonwealth 
of Pennsylvania, was born in London, in 1644, and met 
his death in 1718, being buried at the village of Jordan, 
Buckinghamshire. Entering Oxford College, he early gave 
evidence of strong religious impulses, and adopted the 
new doctrines of the so-called Society of Friends. In 
1680, Penn, who had inherited from his father a claim 
against the government of £16,000, obtained from the 
king in satisfaction therefor a grant of an extensive tract 
of country lying West of the river Delaware and North of 
Maryland, in the American plantations, and which in the 
royal patent was called Pennsylvania (Penn's wooded 
country), in honor of the late admiral, the father of the 
grantee. This territory Penn resolved to form into a 
commonwealth based upon perfect religious toleration, and 
accordingly set sail thither, arriving in Delaware Bay on 
the 27th of October, 1682. In November he entered into 
a league with the Indians, and founded the city of Phila- 
delphia. Penn's writings were numerous and exerted a 
powerful influence. The most noteworthy ones are: No 
Cross, No Crown; The Conduct of Life; Quakerism a 
New Name for Old Christianity; The Great Lav; of Lib- 
erty of Conscience Debated and Defended; and A Brief 
Account of the People called Quakers. 

Wesley.— John Wesley, an English divine and religious 



EXGLISH LITERATURE. 195 

reformer, was born at Epworth, in Lincolnshire, in 1703, 
and passed from this earth at London, in 1791. Educated 
at Oxford, he became a Fellow of Lincoln College, and 
in 1728 took orders in the Church of England, and held a 
curacy for two years. On his return to Oxford, he formed, 
along with his brother Charles, the celebrated George 
Whitefield, and others, one of a kind of religious brother- 
hood, who obtained by their strict and austere mode of 
life the nick-name of Methodists. In 1738, Wesley adopted 
Moravian views, yet continued to profess the doctrines of 
the Anglican Church after he had ceased to conform to its 
discipline. In 1740 he seceded from the Moravian con- 
nection and differing with Whitefield on the doctrine of 
predestination, organized a sect of his own and became an 
itinerant field-preacher, thereby exposing himself to much 
popular persecution. In 1750 he married a rich widow, 
from whom he separated in 1771. Wesley's best known 
works are his Journal and his Hymns; in the latter of 
which his brother Charles gave him important aid. 

Whitefield.— George Whitefield, the most celebrated 
English preacher of his day, was born at Gloucester in 
1714, and departed this life at Newburyport, Massachu- 
setts, in 1770. After entering into fellowship with the 
Wesley's at Oxford, he, like them, was excluded from the 
Anglican Church on account of his heterodox views, and 
in 1739 commenced a career of itinerant preaching in 
England and her American colonies, and founded the sect 
of Calvinistic Methodists. The contents of Whitefield's 
^VorTxS and Life consist oi Letters, Journals, and Sermons, 
published in seven volumes. 

Pry nne.— William Prynne, an English Puritan, politi- 
cal writer and antiquary, was born in the year 1600, and 
died in 1609. Prynne was subjected to every cruel treat- 
ment on account of the publication of a book entitled 
Histn'o JListLv, A Scourfie for the Players, which first 
brought him into notice. This work was a grand tirade 



196 THE EXAAIINER's COMPANION. 

against stage-plays, as being " sinful, heathenish, lewd, 
ungodly spectacles," and against the " profession of play- 
poets and stage-players" and the " frequenting of stage- 
plays," as being " unlawful, infamous, and misbeseeming 
Christians," "besides sundry other particulars concerning 
dancing, dicing, health-drinking, etc." In writing this 
furious blast it was no off-hand performance of the author, 
but a very laborious work on which he spent several years 
of hard toil. As a punishment to silence so bold a writer 
of questionable reputation, the Government expelled him 
from the University, degraded him from the bar, fined 
him £5,000, set him twice on the pillary, burned his book 
before his eyes by the common hangman, sentenced him 
to imprisonment for life, cut off both his ears, and lastly 
burned upon his cheeks the letters S. L., " Schismatic 
Libeller," but according to his own version, ^'^ Stigmata 
Laiidis, Marks of Praise." 

Mackiiitosli.— Sir James Mackintosh, who may be 
classed as a politician along with Prynne, British states- 
man and man of letters, was born near Inverness, Scot- 
land, in 1765, educated at Aberdeen, and died rather sud- 
denly in 1832. Sir James must be regarded as one of the 
most powerful intellects of his time; he excelled most in 
analytical criticism. At Edinburgh he studied medicine, 
but afterwards abandoned this profession for the law, and 
won considerable renown by his defense of Peltier. He 
early manifested literary talents of the highest order in 
his Miidicae (TdlUcae, written to refute Burke's "Reflec- 
tions on the French Revolution." Among his works are. 
On the Law of Nature and of Nations; A Dissertation on 
the Progreis of Ethical Philosophy ; a History of Eng- 
land, written for Lardner's Cyclopaedia; a short Eife of 
Sir Thomas More; an Unfinished History of the English 
Revolution of 16S8; and a number of articles for the 
" Edinburgh Review." 

Cirladstone.— "William Edward Gladstone, political 



ENGLISH LITERATtTlE. 197 

writer, statesman, orator, and man of letters, was born in 
Liverpool in 1809, and educated at Oxford, where he grad- 
uated with more than ordinary distinction. Gladstone 
has risen by slow but sure degrees through the various 
stages of advancement, until in 1868 he became the 
Prime Minister of the Crown. In 18*73 he was succeeded 
in the premiership by Mr. Disraeli and in the following 
year published a brochure relating and antagonistic to 
Roman Catholic allegiance, which created a wide sensa- 
tion. The following are some of Gladstone's most able and 
scholarly works: Horner and the Homeric Age; The State 
in its Relation to the Church; Jnventus 3lHndi, the Gods 
and Men of the Heroic Age; Vaticanism, and other pam- 
phlets on the question of Papal Infallihility . 

Browne. — Sir Thomas Browne, a miscellaneous writer 
of some note, was born at London in 1605, and departed 
this life in 1682. He was an exceedingly learned man, and 
passed the greater part of his life in practicing physic in 
the ancient city of Norwich. Among the most popular of 
his works are the treatise on Hgdriotajyhia or Urn-Burial, 
and Essays on Vulgar Errors, or Pseudodoxia, Epidemica. 
But his most celebrated production is the Rdlgio Medici, 
or The Religion of a Physician, a species of confession 
of faith which gives a minute account of his own religious 
and philosophical opinions. As a sequel to this work the 
author wrote Christian Morals, which is also in high 
repute. Another work in which the author displays his 
learning and ingenuity is Tlie Garden of Cgrus, or The 
Quincunxial Lozenge. These writings are the frank out- 
pourings of one of the most eccentric and original minds 
that ever existed. 

Walton.— Izaak Walton was born at Stafford in 1593, 
passed his early manhood in London as a linen-draper, 
and died in 1683 at the age of ninety years. Walton's 
memory is dear to every lover of our literature for the 
delightful book he has left us, redolent of wild-flowers 



198 THE examiner's COMPANION, 

and sweet country air, entitled Tlie Complete Angler. This 
work is Walton's best production, being a treatise on his 
beloved pastime of fishing. Every page is spiced with 
the quaint thought of the philosopher of the rod. A 
second part was added to the Complete Angler^ by Charles 
Cotton, the poet, an adopted son of Walton, who may be 
classed as a miscellaneous writer. The lAves of Don7ie, 
Walton, Hooker, George Herbert, and Bishop Sanderson, 
remain also as fruits of honest Izaak's old age. These 
biographies stand alone in literature. They are written 
with such tender grace, with such an unaffected fervor of 
personal attachment and simple piety, that they will always 
be regarded as master-pieces. 

Richardson.— Charles Richardson, an English lexicog- 
rapher, was author of a high esteemed Dictionary of the 
English Language. He was born in the year 17*75, and 
his death took place in 1865. His work is very rich in 
materials, and altogether unparalleled. Other Dictionaries 
seem to have been built up by accretion one upon another, 
or have been developed one from another, as Webster 
from Johnson, Johnson from Bailey, and so on, going 
back to Edward Phillip's little book, "The New World of 
Words; " but Richardson conceived a new idea and boldly 
pursued this novel course. He adopted as a cardinal 
principle the dictum of John Home Tooke, that each word 
has inherently but one meaning, and this one primary 
meaning, must first be ascertained, not by arbitrary con- 
jecture, but by etymological and historical research, and 
that all the secondary and derived meanings should be 
subordinated to it, and be shown to spring from it, in 
historical and logical order. The cardinal principles upon 
which Richardson's work is based, are the true foundations 
of the science of lexicography. 

Bnssell. — William Howard Russell, a British journalist, 
who has acquired great celebrity as Special Correspondent 
of the London Times, was born in 1821. The London 



EKOIJSII LITERATURE. 199 

Times sent him out as their special correspondent during 
the Crimean War, and his credentials were such that 
he Avas placed on intimate terms with the leading 
British officers, and enabled to collect the materials for 
that series of brilliant letters which establishe.d his fame. 
He was again sent out as special correspondent, when the 
Civil War in America broke out, and followed the Northern 
army through their disastrous campaigns until the summer 
of 1862. Russell is a man of culture and education, and 
possesses the hapjjy faculty of seizing the essential features 
of a campaign, a battle, a skirmish, or a journey, and 
presenting them in a clear and vigorous style. The works 
by which he has chiefly won his fame are: his Letters on 
the Crimean War; and his Diary in India. 

IjOcke. — John Locke, an English philosopher and theo- 
logian, was born at Wrington, in Somersetshire, in 1632, 
and received his education at Westminster School, and 
Christ Church, Oxford. After filling a diplomatic and 
other public positions, he became Commissioner of Appeals 
in 1688, and died in 1*704. Locke was one of the most 
accomplished and erudite men of his time, and, among his 
multifarious writings, one work stands pre-eminent — his 
well known Essay on the Unman Understanding (pub- 
lished in 1690,) which mai'ks an epoch in the history of 
philosophy. Locke's principal minor works, are.* Letters 
concerning Toleration., written partly in Holland; two 
Treatises on Civil Government ; Thoughts concerning Edu- 
cation; and a sequel to this work, entitled Conduct of the 
Understanding., a small, but admirable little work which 
was published after his death. 

Boyle.— Robert Boyle, son of the Great Earl of Cork, 
was born at Lismore, in 1627, and descended into an hon- 
ored g7'ave in 1691. He was distinguished for his deep 
researches in Chemistry and Natural Philosophy, and was 
one of the original members of the Royal Society. His 
favorite subjects were air, and the aii"-pump. He discov- 



200 THE examiner's companion. 

ered the law concerning the elasticity of the air, and was 
the first to note that the science of chemistry pertains to the 
atomic constituents of bodies. Boyle's Occasional Reflec- 
tions on Several Subjects, published in 1665, gave origin to 
Swift's well known caricature, Meditation of a Brooin-stich. 

Hamiltou.— Sir William Hamilton, the greatest phi- 
losopher of his age, was born in Glasgow in 1788, edu- 
cated at Oxford, and called to the Scottish bar in 1813. 
In 1821 he became professor of universal history, and in 
1836 professor of logic and metaphysics in Edinburgh 
University. His Essays frotn the Edinhnrgh liemew and 
his Edition of Dr. HeicVs WorJcs were published during 
his lifetime. His Lectures edited by Dr. Mansel of Oxford, 
and Professor Veitch, now of Glasgow, were published 
after his death. Among his chief published works are: 
Philoso2)hy of the Absolute (182*7); PhUosojihy of Percep- 
tion (1830); and Logic (1833). He died in 1856. 

Mill.— John Stuart Mill, an English philosopher and 
political economist, was born in London in 1806, and met 
his death at Avignon, France, in 18*73. Mill established 
his reputation in 1843, by the publication of A System of 
Logic, Patiocinative and Lnductive, a work the success of 
which paved the way for The Principles of Political Econ- 
omy, with some of their Applications to Social Philosophy 
(1848). His later works are an Essay on Liberty; An 
Examination of Sir HViUiain IIamilton''s Philosophy 
(1865); and the Subjection of Women 1869 in which he 
avows himself a partisan of what has been popularly 
termed the "Woman's Rights, movement." 

Spencer.— Herbert Spencer, one of the most copious 
writers of the day on philosophical subjects, was born at 
Derby, in 1820, Spencer maintains that there is no such 
thing as metaphysics in the ordinary use of that term, no 
a p)riori (from the cause to the effect) construction of the 
world of thought out of the philosopher's own conscious 
ness, but only a science of human life based upon broad 



ENGLISH LITERATURE. 201 

and carefully prepared data, and treated like other induct- 
ive sciences. Among his chief works may be named: 
The Principles of Psychology ; First Principles; Social 
Statics; Education; Principjles of Biology ; Universal 
Progress; and Classification of the Sciences. 

Darwin.— Charles Robert Darwin was born at Shrews- 
bury, England, in 1809, and met his death at London in 
1882. Some of his chief works are: Variations of Ani- 
mals and Plants under Domestication; The Descent of 
Man; and a charming work Qx\t\l\ediYoyageofa]S'aturalist 
Pound the JVorld. Darwin's great fame, however, rests 
principally upon the remarkable ethnological theory 
embodied in 77ie Origin of Species by Means af JV^fitural 
Selection, a work which has passed through numberless 
editions, been translated into all literary languages, and 
has caused the liveliest controversy in the scientific world. 

Newton. — Sir Isaac Newton, an illustrious English 
philosopher and mathematician, was born at Woolsthorpe, 
in Lincolnshire, in 1642, and departed this life in 1727. 
Newton graduated at Cambridge University in 1668, and 
there became professor of mathematics in the following 
year. Prior to this he discovered the binomial theorem, 
and of the differential calculus, or method of fluxions, and 
in 1665 demonstrated his theory of the central force of 
gravity of the earth. In 1 685-6 appeared the PHncipia, 
the masterpiece of his genius, a work styled by Laplace, 
"pre-eminent above all other productions of the human 
intellect." In this, he embodied the laws of his great 
discovery of the principle of universal gravitation. From 
the long list of Newton's works, the principal of which 
were written in Latin, some English publications 
may be selected. The first edition of his Optics 
(1704) appeared in his own tongue. A work entitled. 
The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended, was 
printed after the author's death. And an interesting 
theological treatise, styled Observations upon the Proph- 



202 THE examiner's companion. 

ecies of Daniel and the Apocalyijse of St. John, which 
his executors published iu 1733. 

Benthani. — Jeremy Beutham, a scientist of consider- 
able note, was educated at Oxford, called to the bar, but 
did not pursue it a's a profession. He is the great teacher 
of Utilitarianism, and as a jurist he set himself in earnest 
to discover and disclose the defects and faults of the then 
existing sj'stem and language of jurisprudence, and to 
establish something truer and better in their place. For 
nearly half a century Bentham was the center of an influ- 
ential circle of philosophical writers. Among his most 
celebrated works are: Introduction to the Princjples and 
MoraU of Legislation^ Treatise on Civil and Penal Legis- 
lation; and Tlieory of Rewards and Punishments. Bentham 
was born in 1748, and died at London in 1832, leaving his 
"body to be dissected for the benefit of science. 

Miller. — Hugh Miller was born at Cromarty, Scotland, 
in 1802, of humble parentage, and committed suicide by 
shooting himself in 1856. He became early in life a 
working stone-mason, and in the quarries imbibed a taste 
for and acquired a profound knowledge of geology. Six 
years he spent as an accountant in a Cromarty bank, dur- 
ing which time his chief literary performance was. Scenes 
and Legends in the North of Scotland, or the Traditional 
History of Cromarty. Some of his works are: My Schools 
and Schoolmasters; The Old Ped Sandstone; Footjyrints of 
the Creator; and The Testimony of the Pocks. Miller's 
reputation rests upon the three last mentioned works. 

Tyndall.— John Tyndall, a very distinguished and 
widely known scientist, was born at Leighlin Bridge, Ire- 
land, in 1820. Two interesting woi'ks on Switzerland 
called, The Glaciers of the Alps, and Mouyitaineering in 
1861, were written by Tyndall, in which brilliant descrip- 
tion of hazardous ascensions is skilfully blended with 
scientific information. Heat as a 3fode of Jifotion, and a 
work on Sound, are his best and most popular writings. 



E^rCLISH LITERATTJRE. 203 

In 1872 he visited tlie United States and lectured in public, 
the surplus profits being devoted to the promotion of 
scientific study in this country. 

Richardsou. — Samuel Richardson, a novelist of note, 
was born in Derbyshire in 1689, and died at Parson's 
Green in 1761, at the ripe age of seventy-two. When 
more than fifty years of age he began to write, and the 
result of his undertaking was his first novel, Pamela, 
or Virtue Rewarded, over which so many hearty, 
honest laughs have been enjoyed. In 1749, Richardson 
published Clarissa Harlowe, and in 1753 Sir Charles 
Grandison, both of which attained a popularity equal to 
that of their predecessor. He acquired a world-wide 
reputation by his three novels already mentioned, which 
have run through countless editions, and which are still read. 

Fielding.— Henry Fielding, the father of English 
fiction, was born in 1707, at Sharpham Park in Somerset- 
shire, and died at Lisbon, and was buried there in the 
cemetery of the British Factory, in 1754. Fielding was 
of a noble family allied to the imperial house of Austria, 
His father was a General in the army, and his mother was 
the daughter of a Judge. Fielding's first novel, Joseph 
Andreses, was a powerful caricature of the timid and fas- 
tidious morality, the sentimentalism and the somewhat 
preaching style of Richardson's Pamela. In rapid succes- 
sion Fielding produced his Journey from this World to 
the Next; The Life of Jonathan'Wild the Great; and Tom, 
Jones. His third great novel is Amelia ; which story was 
intended to portray Fielding's own follies and irregularities, 
and to pay a tribute to the virtues and love of his wife. 

Smollet.— Tobias George SmoUet, an eminent novelist 
and historian, was born in 1721, at Dalquhurn-house near 
Renton, in Dumbartonshire, educated at the Grammar 
School of Dumbarton and the University of Glasgow, 
and met his death in 1771. In the year 1748, Roderick 
Random opened his career as a novelist. His second 



204 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

novel, Peregrine Pickle^ followed in three years; and in 
1753, The Adventtcres of Ferdinand, Count Fathom, a 
counterpart to Henry Fielding's "Jonathan Wild," 
appeared. Turning his pen from fiction to history, he 
produced, in a little more than one year, a Complete His- 
tory of Fngland.- At fifty years of age, his health being 
broken, he traveled to Leghorn, and there finished a novel 
entitled Humphrey Clinker, which is undoubtedly his 
masterpiece. Like Fielding, Smollet died and was buried 
in a foreign land. 

Scott.— Sir Walter Scott, an illustrious Scottish novelist 
and poet, was born at Edinburgh in 1771, of an ancient 
family represented by the Dukes of Buccleuch. During 
his youth he suffered much from ill-health, and contracted 
a lameness which never left him. He studied at the High 
School and University of his native city, and early imbued 
his mind with a strong predilection for the legends, tradi- 
tions and antiquities of his country. In 1802 he produced 
The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border, and, in 1805, enrapt- 
ured the reading-world with the first of his great 
poems — The Lay of the Last Minstrel — a work which 
placed him in the front rank of contemporary poets. In 
1808 he gave to the public his Marmion, the masterpiece 
of his poetic genius; and, in 1810, his last great poem. 
The Lady of the Lake. In 1814, he commenced his 
career as a novelist by the publication of Waverly, 
the pioneer of that unique series of works of fiction 
known to the civilized world as The Waverly Novels,- and 
his authorship of which he kept secret for many years. In 
1831 he left for Italy, there to recruit his health; but, soon 
feeling that his strength was ra^^idly decreasing, he 
returned home, and died at Abbotsford in 1832. Inde- 
pendent of his novels and poems, Scott did much in other 
departments of literature. His Life of Napoleon alone 
realized him $00,000. Scott must ever rank as one of the 
foremost names in literature. Surpassed by Shakespeare 



ENGLISH LITERATURE. 205 

in versatility of power; by Goethe in art; by Fielding in 
individuality; by Bulwer in sensational vigor; and by 
Dickens in humor: Scott yet remains the grand-master of 
the field of chivalrous and historical romance. 

Bronte.— Charlotte Bronte, better known under her 
nom-de-plume " Currer Bell," was one of the most 
original novelists of the day. She achieved a wide repu- 
tation as the author of the powerful novels, Jane Eyre; 
Shirley; and VUlette. Miss Bronte was the daughter of 
an Irish curate; she settled in Yorkshire, and grew up in 
the wilds of Haworth. Her first novel called, The Pro- 
fessor, was rejected by the London publishers. The 
rejection was sweetened by encouragement to try a more 
salable book. This M''ork was Jane ^yre,which is mentioned 
above. She was born at Thornton in 1816, married her 
father's curate, Mr. Nichol, in 1854, and died at Haworth, 
in 1855, in her thirty-ninth year. 

Dickens.— Charles Dickens was the most popular 
novelist of his day. He was born at Landport, Portsmouth, 
in 1812, and departed this life suddenly, from overwork, 
at Gadshill, near Rochester, England, in 18V0. Early in 
life, he abandoned the study of the law for the profession 
of parliamentary reporting for the London daily newspaper 
press. His literary career commenced with the publication 
of /Sketches by Boz, 1 836. In 1 837 he founded his reputation 
by the Pickwick Papers, a work which, for insight into 
character and breadth of original humor, is not surpassed 
by anything in the language. Next followed a series of 
works which placed him at the head of a new school of 
novelists: OUmr Twist (1838); Nicholas Nickleby (1839); 
Master Hum-iphrey'' s Clock (1840-41); Barnahy Pudge 
(1842); Martin Chuzzleioiit (1843-4); Pombey and Son 
(1847-8); Pavid Copi^erjleld (1847-8); etc., etc. His last 
and unfinished work is the Mystery of Edvnn Prood 
(1870). In 1845, Dickens became for a time editor of the 
London "Daily News," — a newspaper he himself had 



206 THE examiner's companion. 

founded. In 1850, he brought out Household Words, 
since merged into All the Year Momid, a periodical which 
has retained a front place among English magazines. 

Thackeray.— William Makepeace Thackeray, one of 
the greatest of modern novelists, was born at Calcutta, in 
1811, educated at Cambridge, and died in London on the 
Christmas Eve of 1863. Under the nom de plume of 
" Michael Angelo Titraarsh," Thackeray became known as 
a humoristic writer of the first eminence. Some of his 
contributions, such as tales, criticism, and poetry, appeared 
in " Eraser's Magazine." They were, The Hoggarty 
Diamond; The Paris Sketch-Booh ; The Irish Sketch- 
Book; The Chronicle of the Drum; and the tale of Barry 
Lyndon. Soon after appeared Thackeray's first, and, in 
the eyes of many, his greatest novel. Vanity Fair. The 
History of Arthur Bendennis, was the immediate successor 
of Vanity Fair. Then came The History of Henry 
Esmond, Esq., which is probably the best of Thackeray's 
writings. In his work entitled The Newcomes, Thackeray's 
most popular novel, the leading theme or moral of the story 
is the misery occasioned by forced or ill-assorted marriages. 
His two courses of lectures On the English Humorists and 
The Four Georges, are models of style and criticism. 
As a man and a writer, Thackeray has left, by his death, 
a void in English letters which will not soon be filled, 
and a fame second only to that of Scott. 

Bal wer-Liy ttoa. — Sir Edward George Bulwer- 
Lytton may be classed with Thackeray and Dickens as 
the third great writer of the modern novel. He was born 
in Norfolk, of an ancient family in 1805, educated at 
Cambridge, and met his death at London in 1873. He 
was the third son of General Bulwer, of Heyden Hall in 
Norfolk. Upon inheriting his mother's estates in 1844, 
he was granted the privilege of adding her family name, 
Lytton, to his surname. His career as a novelist first 
commenced in 1827, when a work entitled Falkland 



ENGLISH LITEEATUKE. 207 

appeared. In the year following Pelham appeared — a 
work which placed hira at once in the first rank of con- 
temporary writers of fiction. Among his chief novels are: 
Eugene Aram; The Last Days of Pomj^eii; The Caxtons; 
The Disotoned; Paul Clifford; The Pilgrims of the Mhine; 
My Novel; ll^iat loill He do vnthlt; and A Strange Story. 
He is also author of the successful and favorite plays, 27ie 
Lady of Lyons; Richelieu; and Money ^ and of the jioems, 
The JVeio Timon; King Arthur, and Milton; the last 
named one being considered his best work in English versie. 

Trollope.— Anthony Trollope stands in the front rank 
of English novelists; and nowhere are his works more 
popular than in the United States. At first commencing 
with Irish stories, he afterwards struck upon a vein but 
little wrought by former novelists — life among English 
clergymen. As a delineator of English political, clerical, 
and middle-class English life, and of Irish characteristics 
in general, he is without a rival. Some of his best-known 
productions are : The Warden; Doctor Thome; The ICellys 
and the O'lCellys; The Bertrams; Phineas Finn, the 
Irish 3fember; TJie Lost Chronicle of Barset; and The 
Three Clerks. All his works are clothed in an atmosphere 
of healthy and robust purity, alike removed from sentimen- 
tality and extravagance. These qualities, combined with 
ease of style, have procured for the author an immense 
popularity which shows no signs of diminution, but rather 
an increase since his death, which took place in 1882. 
Trollope was born in 1815. 

Reade.— Charles Reade, a popular English novelist, 
was born at London in 1814, and died at his birth-place in 
1884. Receiving his education at Oxford, he then estab- 
lished for himself a reputation by his first novel, Peg 
Woffington, which appeared in 1852. In true artistic 
merit, this novel is unsurpassed by any of its more ambi- 
tious successors. The most important of these are: Never 
too Late to Mend; Love Me Little Love Me Long; Hard 



208 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

Oashy White Lies; The Cloister and the Hearth; and Put 
Yourself in His Place. Reade's novel, Never too Late to 
Mend, was a vigorous protest against the then existing 
prison-system of England. His intention was to show the 
evils of Trades-Unions, when he wrote his work called 
Put Yourself in His Place. 

Collins. — William Wilkie Collins, a very popular 
novelist, was born at London in 1824. He wrote his 
father's Life; a novel called Antonina; The Frozen Peep, 
a drama; Queen of Hearts; Man and Wife; and The 
Dead Secret. But his best work is a novel entitled 
The Woman in White, contributed to "All the Year 
Round." Plunged in a mystery before the first chapter 
has closed, we remain dark and breathless almost to the 
last page of the tale. More recent fictions from his pen 
are: The Moonstone; No Name; and Arrnadale. 

Eliot.— Mrs. Marion C. (Evans) Lewes, best known by 
her assumed name of " George Eliot," has produced some 
of the most remarkable novels of the day. She was born 
in Warwickshire in 1820, and died at London in 1880. 
Beginning her literary career with Scenes of Clerical Life, 
she afterwards took the reading public by storm, when 
Adam Bede appeared. Some more of her chief works may 
be named as. The Mill on the Floss; Silas Warner, the 
Weaver of Ravelhoe; Roynola; Felix Holt, the Radical; 
Middlemarch; and a dramatic poem entitled The Spanish 
Gipsy. Scarcely any works of fiction of the present day 
show greater originality, or power, or higher artistic finish, 
than those of " George Eliot." 

Macaalay. — Thomas Babington, Lord Macaulay, an 
English historian of note, was born at Rothley, England, 
in 1800; thoroughly educated at the University of Cam- 
bridge, and died in Kensington, England, in 1859, his 
remains being buried in Westminster Abbey. The fame 
of Lord Macaulay mainly rests upon his consummate 
ability as historian and essayist. His great performance, 



ENGLISH LITERATURE. 209 

A History of England, from the Accession of James the 
Second to the Death of William III., is a work of pre- 
eminent excellence. As a poet he wrote those magnificent 
martial ballads entitled, the Lays of Ancient Rome, which 
have few parallels, if any, in the English language. Two 
of Macaulay's most remarkable productions, the Battle of 
Ivry, and the Essay on Hilton, were published in his youth 
while a law student. 

Crrote.— George Grote was born in 1794 at Clay Hill, 
near Beckenliam in Kent, educated at the Charter-house, 
and met his death in 18*71. He was a most eminent English 
writer upon Ancient History, and produced a work entitled 
The History of Greece froyn the Earliest Period to the Death 
of Alexander the Great, which is far superior to any 
existing in European languages. Grote also wrote an 
important work entitled Plato and the other Companions 
of Socrates, which is a masterpiece of research, analysis, 
and scholarship. 

Hallam.— Henry Hallam was born at Windsor in 1778, 
received his education at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, 
and passed from this earth in 1859. He has worthily 
won the praise of being "the most judicial of our great 
modern historians." Having studied in the Inner Tem- 
ple, he was called to the bar, and soon became a Commis- 
sioner of Audit. His greatest works comprise a Viev) 
of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages; The Con- 
stitutioncd History of England from the Accession of 
Henry VII., to the Death of George II., and his master- 
piece, the Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the 
XV., XVI, and XVII, Centuries. This distinguished 
historian was a son of the Dean of Wells, and a valued 
friend of Sir Walter Scott. 

Hyde.— Edward Hyde was born at Dinton in Wilt- 
shire in 1608 educated for the profession of law, but at an 
early age he quitted the bar, and engaged in the more 
exciting struggles of political life. After being appointod 
14 



210 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

Lord Chancellor of England, he opposed the Church of 
Rome, and ruined his popularity with the nation. In 
1667, he was doomed to perpetual exile by act of Parlia- 
ment. Hyde's History of the Rebellion is a work of the 
highest literary merit; and his Essay on an Active and 
Contemplative Life, another very remarkable work. Born 
in the same year, Hyde and John Milton stood all their 
lives apart, towering in rival greatness above their fellows 
in the grand struggle of their century. Milton wrote 
most of his great poem in blindness and disgrace; Hyde 
completed his great history during a painful exile. His 
death occurred at Rouen, France, in 1674. 

Hill. — James Mill, a British historian and political 
economist, was born in 1773, at Logic Pert, near Mont- 
rose, and died at London in 1836. His great work, a 
History of British India, which advocated many of the 
progressive views of Jeremy Bentham, was published in 
five volumes, 8 vo., in 1817-19. Mr. Mill has written 
much that is of standard value; as witness the above men- 
tioned history; the Liberty of the Press, the Law of 
Nations; Elements of Political Economy; and an Analysis 
of the Phenomena of the Hwnan Mind. 

Carlyle.— Thomas Carlyle, an eminent English histo- 
rian and philosopher, was born in the parish of Middlebie, 
in Dumfriesshire, Scotland, in 1795. Graduating at the 
University of Edinburgh, he afterwards engaged in teach- 
ing for a number of years as mathematical master in a 
Fifeshire school, and then as tutor to Charles Buller, but 
when about thirty years of age he gave himself up wholly 
to literature and authorship. Among Carlyle's chief pub. 
lications may be named: Life of Schiller; Sartor Resartus ; 
History of the French Revolution; Hero Worship, and 
other Essays ; Latter Hay Pamphlets; Chartism; Past and 
Present; T^etters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell; Life of 
John Sterlimj ; and th Life of Frederick the Great. Mr. 
Carlyle died at Jiondon in 1881, 



ENGLISH LITERATURE. 211 

Campbell.— John, Lord Campbell, a native of Scot- 
land, who may be classed among the biographers, attained 
great eminence as a 'jurist and statesman. Born in 17Y9 
he became Lord Chancellor of Ireland in 1841, and Lord 
Chief Justice of the Court of Queen's Bench in 1850. 
In 1859, he was appointed Lord Chancellor, under the 
Palmerston administration. In 1846 he produced his 
Lives of the Lord Chancellors, etc., in seven volumes, 
republished in Philadelphia; and in 1^49 the Lives of the 
Chief Justices, in three volumes. These works are regarded 
as of great historical value, besides being written in a 
pleasing and attractive style. Campbell died in 1861. 

Knight.— Charles Knight an English biographer and 
man of letters Avas born at Windsor, in 1791. In 1872 he 
settled in London, where he rapidly acquired reputation as 
a publisher of works, of a high class, and started Knight's 
Quarterly Magazine, which contained some of the earlier 
writings of Lord Macaulay. Knight afterwards estab- 
lished the Penny Magazine and the Penny Cyclopcedia, 
the latter on which he expended $200,000 for original con- 
tributions. He was the editor of the Pictorial Shakespeare, 
and is the author of William Shakespeare, a Biograpjhy. 
He also edited the English Cyclopoidia, and was, at the same 
time, engaged on his Popxdar Ilistory of England, com- 
l)leted in 1862. Some of Knight's other productions com- 
prise autobiographical Passages of a Working Ijfe during 
Half a Century; Half-Hours with the Best Authors; 
Half-Hours of English History; and Half-Hours vnth 
the Best Letter- Writers. His death took place in 1874. 

liamb.— Charles Lamb, the most charming essayist in 
the English language, was born at London in 1775, and 
died at Edmundton, near London, in 1834, of erysipelas. 
He was educated at Christ's Hospital, where the poet Cole- 
ridge was his schoolfellow. Lamb's genial wit and 
hospitality drew around his tea-table the poets Coleridge, 
Lloyd, Southey, Dyer; Godwin the novelist; Hazlitt tl:.; 



212 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

critic; Manning the theologian, and all of that sort. Of 
his works the most eminent is undoubtedly the Essays of 
EUa. Lamb was also the author of John Woodvil, a 
tragedy; Tales Founded on the Plays of Shakespeare; and 
innumerable essays, poems, etc. 

Hazlitt.— William Hazlitt, an eminent critic, was born 
at Maidstone, in 1778, and died of cholera in 1830. Haz- 
litt was educated for tlie clerical profession, but soon after 
entered the paths of literature, and in 1805 produced. his 
Principles of Human Action. This was the germ of a 
long and successful literary career, during which he gave 
to the world his Lectures on the Literature of the Eliza, 
bethan Aye; Table Talk; Lectures on the Enylish Poets; 
The /Sjnrit of the Age, and his well-known Life of Napo- 
leon Bonaparte. Mr. Hazlitt was one of the best critics 
in the earlier part of this century. His paradoxes are a 
little startling, and sometimes lead him astray; but there 
is a delicacy of taste, a richness of imagination, and a per- 
ceptive power, that make him a worthy second to 
Thomas DeQuincey. 

De^nincey.— Thomas DeQuincey received a classical 
education at the Grammar School of Bath, and entered the 
University of Oxford in 1803, where he remained until 
1808. Whilst there he contracted the habit of eating 
opium, to which he remained a bounden slave for many 
years. He made German Literature and philosophy his 
special study, and translated some of the works of Kant, 
Fichte, Schelling, Lessing, and Richter. The consequen- 
ces of his taking opium were fearful, as he himself relates 
in his chief work. The Confessions of an English Opium- 
eater. In 1823 he went to London, where he published his 
Suspiria de Profundis, his Templar''s Dialogues, and other 
works. His w^orks evince profound learning and deep 
speculation, together with great critical powers and terse- 
ness of diction. This well-known critic was born at 
Manchester in 1785, and died at Edinburgh in 1859. 



ENGLISH LITERATURE. 213 

Bruce.— James Bruce, an English traveler, was born in 
Stirlingshire, Scotland, in 1730, and passed from his 
earthly career in 1794. Till the time of this intrepid 
explorer of Africa, our knowledge of the interior king- 
doms and resources of that vast continent was of the 
most imperfect kind; but Bruce's journey to ■ Abyssinia 
and the source of the Nile forms an epoch in the annals 
of discovery. By his travels and researches great acces- 
sions were made both in the science of geography and 
that of natural history; and though the marvels he revealed 
were long and derisively treated as fabrications, a more 
extensive and perfect knowledge of East Africa has gen- 
erally confirmed the truth of his assertions. 

liiTingstone. — David Livingstone, a Scottish traveler 
and explorer of humble parentage, was born at Blantyre, 
near Glasgow, in 1815; and died from dysentery at Itaca, 
Central Africa, in 1873. As an agent of the London Mis- 
sionary Society, he labored and traveled in the interior of 
Africa, in 1840-56. In 1858 he again visited that conti- 
nent and explored the river Zambesi, until then unknown 
to Europeans. In 1865 he started from England on a third 
expedition, with a view to explore the countries lying in 
the far interior beyond Lake Nyassa. In 1871 the "Kew 
York Herald" dispatched Mr. Stanley, one of its corre- 
spondents, in search of Livingstone, from whom nothing 
had been heard since May 13, 1869. Mr. Stanley found 
him at Ujiji, and left him in March, 1872. His chief dis- 
coveries have been the Victoria Falls and Lake Nyassa. 
The labors of Livingstone in African wilds are detailed in 
his Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa 
(1857); and a Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi, 
1854-64. In 1874 Livingstone's remains were brought to 
England, and interred in Westminster Abbey. His Last 
Journals were published simultaneously in England and 
the United States, in 1875. 




•^ GEOLOGY, -^ 



llWjHWBS^lK^I 




QUESTIONS. 



1. Define Geology 

2. State the origin of the earth according to the nebu- 
lar hypothesis. 

3. Why did the earth assume a globular form? 
Describe the appearance of the first crust. 
This crust was constantly rent asunder by what? 
The surface of the eailh then bristled with what? 
As the globe continued to cool what happened? 

8. What was the result of the crust shrinking and 
cracking as it hardened? 

9. Describe the conflict between fire and water. 
Where do Astronomy and Geology meet? 
What is said of the Mosaic account of the creation? 
What happened on the second day? 
How thick is the earth's crust? 
How deep has it been examined? 
Name the six reasons given to prove that the inte- 
rior of the earth is a melted mass. 

16. What are sedimentary rocks? 

17. What are igneous rocks? 

18. Define fossils. 

(214) 



4. 

5. 
6. 

7. 



10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 



GEOLOGY QUESTIONS. 215 

19. What proof is there that an Arctic climate once 
existed in England and France? 

20. What reasons has the geologist for thinking that 
certain regions were once covered with glaciers or icebergs? 

21. How does the geologist know that a race of cave- 
dwelling men once lived in Europe? 

22. How does he know that they were contemporaneous 
with the hyena? 

23. State what has been found in draining old Scottish 
lake-bottoms. 

24. Define lithological geology, and name the three 
classes into which it is divided. 

25. What is found under the soil and the sea? 

26. Define the term rock?. 

27. What three common substances are rocks, in 
general, composed of? 

28. What are the properties of quartz? 

29. Is silica soluble, or insoluble? 

30. In what state is silica found? 

3 1 . What is rock crystal ? 

32. For what was it used in ancient times? 

33. What is said of rose, or pink quartz? 

34. Describe smoky quartz. Milky quartz. 

35. Describe granular quartz and give its uses. 

36. What is said of amethyst? 

37. What is said of chalcedony? 

38. What is said of agate? 

39. Name the different varieties of agate. 

40. What is a cameo? 

41. Describe jasper. 

42. Describe other varieties of jasper. 

43. What is opal? 

44. What gives the color to quartz, pebbles, sand, etc.? 

45. Describe flint, and mention its use. 

46. Describe hornstone. Buhrstone. 

47. Where is buhrstone found? 



216 THE EXAjSIINEr's COMPANION. 

48. What is the origin of quartz? What are diatoms? 

49. Describe alumina. Its tests. 

50. The ruby ranks in value next to what mineral? 

51. What is the composition of limestone? 

52. Define calc-spar. Chalk. 

53. What is Oolite? Marl? Dolomite? 

54. What is marble? 

55. Where is good building marble found? 

56. Describe the process of sawing marble. 

57. What is gypsum? Its tests? 

58. What is plaster? Its uses? 

59. What are the forms of crystallized gypsum? 

60. Where is there a noted locality for it? 

61. Name the three general classes of rocks. 

62. Define sedimentary rocks. 

63. Name the four divisions of sedimentary rocks. 

64. What is sandstone? Conglomerate? 

65. What is shale? Limestone? 

66. Define igneous rocks. 

67. Why are trap-rocks so-called? 

68. What are the uses of trap-rocks? 

69. What are the varieties of volcanic rocks? 

70. Describe trachyte. 

71. What is lava? 

72. What is scoria? Pumice? Obsidian? 

73. Define metamorphic rocks. 

74. What is the composition of granite? 

75. What is graphic granite? 

76. Is the structure of granite uniform? 

77. Where is granite quarried? 

78. What is the difference between granite and gneiss? 

79. What is said of the origin of gneiss? 

80. What is mica schist? 

81. What is syenite, and why so called? 

82. Does syenite possess much strength? 

83. Define quartzite. 



GEOLOGY — QUESTIONS. 217 

84. How are rocks classified according to their struct- 
ure? 

85. Which class is the more abundant on the exterior 
of the earth's crust? On the interior? 

86. What does historical geology deal with? 

87. Does the earth's crust remain of the same thickness? 

88. Define stratum, formation, group, and lamina. 

89. How do the unstratified rocks occur? 

90. What are veins? 

91. What are dikes? What is the meaning of the 
term dike? 

92. How is the history of the earth's crust divided? 

93. What are the ages of the four mentioned eras or 
times? 

94. What is said of the Eozoic time? 

95. What does the Mosaic account describe? 

96. What is said of the Paleozoic time? 

97. How many, and what are the different periods of 
the Silurian age? 

98. What is said of the Potsdam period? 

99. Draw the parallel between the Mosaic and geo- 
logic accounts. 

100. What is said of the Trenton period? 

101. State what is said of the Hudson period. 

102. What is the location of the Niagara period? 

103. What can you say of the Salina period? 

104. What are the kinds of rocks? 

105. Give the location of the Lower Helderberg rocks. 

106. Mention the kind of rock. 

107. What is the location of the Oriskany rocks? 

108. What is the character of these rocks? 

109. What periods are mentioned in the Devonian age? 

110. Give the location of the Upper Helderberg rocks. 

111. What is said of the Hamilton rocks? 

112. State what is said of the Chemung period. 

113. Locate the Catskill rocks. 



218 THE examiner's COMPANIOK. 

114. What are their characteristics? 

115. Name the periods of the Carboniferous age. 

116. What is the location of the Subcarboniferous rocks? 

117. What are the kinds of rock? 

1 IS. What prominent fossils are found in this rock? 

119. What is said about caves abounding in this rock? 

120. What is said of the Mammoth Cave? 

121. What peculiarity of the fish found in the Mam- 
moth Cave? 

122. What is the location of Carboniferous rocks? 

123. What are the kinds of rock? 

124. Give the location of the Permian period. 

125. Name the periods of the Mesozoic time. 

126. What is said of the Triassic and Jurassic periods? 

127. What is the location of the Cretaceous rocks? 

128. Name the periods of the Cenozoic time. 

129. What are the epochs of the Tertiary period? 

130. What are the epochs of the Post Tertiary period? 

131. What are sand-dunes? 

132. State what is said of the Mosaic Account. 

133. Does Geology give a similar statement? 

134. Does Geology tell when man appeared? 

135. What do we find in the Post-Tertiary Period? 

136. Along with these what else do we find? 

137. How has the life of the pre-historic man been 
classified? 

138. Describe the man of the Stone Age in the first epoch. 

139. Describe the man of the Stone Age in the second 
epoch. 

1 40. Describe the man of the StoneAge in the third epoch. 
141 Mention the influence of the metals in advancing 

civilization. 

142. What is said of gold, copper and tin? 

143. What metals were first used? 

144. Describe man's progress in the Bronze epoch. 

145. Describe man's progress in the Iron epoch. 




1. Geology is that science which treats of the structure 
and mineral constitution of the globe, the causes of its 
physical features, and its history. 

2. Our earth was once, doubtless, a glowing star. In 
that far off beginning it shone as brilliantly as do now the 
sun and the fixed stars. In process of time it cooled from 
a gaseous to a liquid form. 

3. The earth then assumed a spherical figure in 
obedience to the same familiar laws of force which round 
a drop of dew. Its atmosphere comprised not only the 
gases that compose our present atmosphere, but all the 
oxygen and carbon now locked in the rock and coal 
masses of the earth, vast quantities of mineral matter 
vaporized by the fierce heat, and, in the form of super- 
heated steam, all the water which now fills the ocean. 
The air, thus dense with moisture, and metallic vapors, 
rested on an ocean of fire. 

4. Ages passed, and the earth, cooling as its heat 
became changed to other forms of force, began to show 
on its surface patches of solid substance, like the floating 
films that first appear on water as it passes into ice. 

(219) 



220 THE examiner's COMPANION'. 

These gradually combining, formed at last a thin crust ovei 
the entire exterior, 

5. This crust was, however, constantly rent asunder by 
eruptions from the molten mass beneath. Huge crevices 
were opened, and torrents of liquid lava, ejected from the 
cracks and seams, were poured in fiery floods over the 
scarcely solid crust, 

6. The surface, arid and burning, bristled with ragged 
eminences, or was furrowed with enormous clefts and 
cracks. But the earth had ceased to shine as a star, and 
henceforth was itself to be lighted and at last heated from 
other bodies. 

7. As the globe continued to cool, a time arrived when 
the heat was not sufficient to support the water in the form 
of vapor. Under the tremendous pressure of the dense 
atmosphere, the steam was precipitated, and boiling hot, 
upon the heated earth below. Revaporized, it ascended 
again only to be condensed and returned as rain. This 
process, long continued, cooled the earth yet more rapidly. 

8. The crust, shrinking and cracking as it hardened, 
became still moi'e uneven with wrinkles and folds, yawning 
gulfs and fissures. The hot rain falling on the volcanic 
peaks, the torrents which poured down the mountain sides 
and through the valleys, all combined to dissolve the rock 
and sweep the sediment into the deeper hollows. The 
crust had not yet attained the consistency necessary to 
resist the pressure of the heated gases and liquids. 

9. In the manner described, enormous dislocations were 
made, whose folds and uplifts with deep gulfs and belching 
lavas denoted terrific convulsions. Thus a fierce conflict 
was raging between fire and water. At last the water 
triumphed, and the ocean became universal. A hot, 
muddy, shallow sea surged round the earth from pole to 
pole. The internal heat of the eai'th made the temperature 
uniform over the entire surface, and hence there were no 
great oceanic or aerial currents. 



GEOLOGY ANSWERS. 221 

10. Astronomy teaches us the probable origin of our 
globe. As soon as the crust began to be formed by tlie 
mingled action of fire and water, Geology steps in to 
explain the phenomena. In this vague and nebulous 
border-land, the two sciences meet. From that time we 
find that the earth entered on a regular series of pro- 
gressive revolutions which gradually fitted it for the intro- 
duction of life. 

11. The Mosaic account of the creation informs us 
that "the earth was at first without form and void; and 
darkness was upon the face of the deep." With the first 
motion of nebulous matter light was developed; or, in tlie 
nervous language of Scripture, " God said. Let there be 
light." Thus ended the work of the first day. 

12. On the second day, the firmament, or atmosphere, 
was formed, separating the clouds above from the sea 
below, which, as the revelations of both the rock and the 
book teach us, as yet covered the entire earth. This was 
the work of the second day, that long area of cooling and 
consolidation that separated the formless period of chaos 
from the birth of the continents. 

13. The earth's crust is evidently thickening fi-om age 
to age, as the cooling process goes on. Our examination 
of it is very superficial, extending downward not more 
than ten miles. 

14. On a terrestrial globe, eighteen inches in diameter, 
the deepest wells, mines and valleys would be exaggerated 
by a delicate scratch upon the varnish with a pin. It is 
generally believed, however, that the solid shell is not 
over fifty miles in thickness, and that the interior is still 
a molten mass. 

15. The facts upon which this opinion rests are as fol- 
lows: 1. The temperature increases as we descend. 2. 
Artesian wells furnish warm water, 3, Hot springs and 
geysers. 4. Elevations and depressions of the earth's 
crust. 5. Volcanoes. 6. Earthquakes. 



222 THE examiner's companion. 

16. Sedimentary rocks are those rocks which have been 
formed by materials deposited from a state of suspension 
in water. 

17. Igneous rocks is a term applied to all agencies, 
operations and results, which seem connected with or to 
have arisen from, subterranean heat; and igijeous rocks 
include the Volcanic, Trappean and Granitic series, all of 
which are evidently the products of fusion, either in the 
interior or at the surface of the crust; geologists, conse- 
quently, vise the term igneous as synonymous with Plu- 
tonic, pyrogenous, unstratified, and other similar terms 

18. Fossils (fossilis, dug up) is a name applied to all 
animal or vegetable remains which are found embedded 
in the rocks of the earth's crust. Fossils are now forming, 
and have been formed in all time. 

19. In certain clay beds of England, shells are found 
of species now existing only in polar seas. We thence 
infer that when that clay was deposited, and those shells 
were inhabited, a climate similar to that in Greenland 
must have prevailed in British latitudes. Remains of the 
reindeer and musk ox occur in France. These indicate a 
former Arctic temperature, unless we are to suppose that 
the habits of those animals have entirely changed since 
the time of their existence in Southern Europe. 

20. Philosophers have carefully studied the effects of 
moving masses of ice. They have seen how the glacier 
pushes its way down the Alpine valley, grinding, rounding, 
smoothing, and marking the rocks over which it passes, 
and depositing at the bottom its burden of debris. They 
have watched the glaciers of polar regions collecting on 
the sea-shore until at last great mountains of ice breaik 
loose and float southward. They have seen these icebergs 
grounding and melting in a more genial clime, where 
they finally drop their load of rocky fragments on the 
sea bottom. 

21. In certain caves the bones of various animals are 



GEOLOGY —ANSWERS. 223 

found embedded in a calcareous deposit, which has accu- 
mulated on the floor by water slowly dripping from the 
roof. Many of the bones have been gnawed, and the 
hollow ones split lengthwise. The geologist considers the 
former the work of den-frequenting, carniverous animals, 
and the latter of a marrow-sucking race of men. 

22. This conclusion is still further substantiated by 
finding traces of the hyena, and also stone hatchets, ashes, 
and charred sticks of wood. Man, only, lights a fire. 
Hence we are as sure of the existence of a rude cave- 
dwelling tribe of men as if we had witnessed their grim 
countenances lighted up by the fires of which those frag- 
ments were the latest embers. The hyena and the cave- 
dwellers lived at the same epoch. 

23. In draining old Scottish lake-bottoms the geologist 
finds below the peat-bog, the bones of horse, pig, deer, dog, 
and man; deeper still, the Roman eagle or sword; next, 
the bones of the wild ox, bear, wolf, beaver; then the 
wooden canoe; below the marl, bones and antlers of the 
gigantic Irish elk, and tusks of the great mammoth; and 
at the bottom the solid rock, strewn with ice-borne blocks, 
the original bed of the lake when its waters were first 
gathered together. 

24. Lithological geology [Uthos, a stone, and logos, a 
discourse), means, literally, a discourse about stones. It 
treats of (1) the Composition, (2) the Classification, and (3) 
the Structure of the rocks which make up the earth's crust. 

25. Underneath the soil and the sea there is every- 
where a rocky foundation which protects us from the fiery 
interior. Along the sea-shore, river-side, road-cuttings, 
etc., this solid basement is exposed to view. It is generallji 
arranged in layers, sometimes loosely, as sand, clay, or 
gravel, and sometimes partly hafdened into stone. Since 
it passes thus insensibly from one stage of consolidation 
into another, the geologist applies the term rock alike to all. 

26. Rock is any natural deposit of stony material, 



224 THE examiner's companion. 

whether consolidated or not, thus including sand, earth, 
or clay, when in natural beds. 

27. Rocks are composed, in general, of the three fol- 
lowing common substances: Quartz, Clay, and Lime- 
stone. Whenever you stand on the solid ground, in any 
country of the globe, you may be sure that the rock under 
you is mainly some form or compound of one or more of 
these earth-builders. 

28. Quartz (silica, silex) is the oxide of silicon, a rare 
non-metallic substance knoAvn only to the chemist. Silica 
is the most abundant of all the minerals, comprising one- 
half of the earth's crust. It is so hard that it strikes 
fire with steel, scratches glass like a diamond, and can 
not be cut with a knife. It has no cleavage, and breaks 
into irregular fragments having a glassy luster. 

29. Silica is insoluble in any acid (except hydrofluoric), 
and melts only in the heat of the compound blow-pipe. 
On account of its hardness, which resists the action of the 
elements, it comprises a large part of ordinary pebbles, 
sand, and much even of the soil. 

30. Silica is found in a state of crystallization. When 
pure, like those of other minerals, the crystals are gener- 
ally small, and sometimes occur in beautiful clusters. 
Crystals of great size, though of inferior clearness are occa- 
sionally seen. Dartmouth College cabinet possesses a 
group weighing 147 pounds. At Milan is a single crystal 
3^ feet long and 5| feet in circumference, estimated to 
weigh 870 pounds. 

31. Rock crystal is the clear crystalline quartz. The 
name is derived from the Greek word krustallos, meaning 
ice. The purest specimens are often cut for jewelry, and 
sold as " white stone" and "California diamonds." They 
are also used for spectacle glasses. 

32. Anciently it was cut into vases and cups, some of 
which are still preserved as curiosities. It is said that 
Nero, on learning of the insurrection which led to his fall, 



GEOLOGY ANSWERS. 225 

dashed into pieces two crystal vases, one valued at $3,000. 
Pure quartz sand is used in large quantities for making glass. 

33. Rose, or pink quartz, is rarely found as crystals, 
but generally as a massive rock. On exposure to the 
light, the color sometimes fades, but it can be restored by 
leaving the stone for a time in a damp place. 

34. Smoky quartz has a dark-brown, smoky tint. It is 
often black and opaque, except in thin portions, which are 
semi-transparent. Milky quartz is a milk-white, opaque, 
massive variety, looking not unlike porcelain. 

35. Granular quartz consists of small grains of quartz 
cemented into a massive rock. It has a texture similar to 
that of loaf-sugar, and oftentimes crumbles easily into sand. 
It is used for hearthstones, furnaces, etc., and when pow- 
dered, for making sand-paper, glass, or pottery. 

36. Amethyst has a beautiful purplish tint from the 
oxide of manganese, which it contains. The name means 
" a preservative from intoxication," and was given it 
from a belief of the ancient Persians, that wine drank 
from an amethyst cup lost its inebriating properties. 

3*7. Chalcedony is distinguished by its waxy, horn-like 
lustre. It has generally a white or brownish shade. When 
bright red, it is a cornelian. When brownish red, a sard. 
When colored apple-green with nickel, a chrysoprase. 

38. Agate is a kind of chalcedony, in which the differ- 
ent shades of color are arranged in parallel lines — the 
edges of the layers which compose the stone. These 
layers are very like the coats of an onion, and represent 
the successive deposits by which the agate was formed. 
They are often so thin as to number fifty within an inch. 

39. When the lines are zigzag, it is termed a fortifica- 
tion agate, from the resemblance to the irregular outlines 
of a fortress. When the stripes alternate, an opaque with 
a transparent band, the stone is termed an onyx {onyx, a 
nail), from a fancied resemblance to the alternating lines 
on the finger-nail. When a deep brownish-red stripe (a 

16 



226 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

sard) alternates with a white one, the agate is called a 
sardony.!i'. When a yellowish-brown oxide of iron is dis- 
seminated through the stone in moss-like forms, it is termed 
a moss-agate. 

40. A diminutive piece of sculpture prepai'ed from 
chalcedony, onyx, and other precious stones having two 
strata or layers of different colors, the undermost of which 
is left to form the background, the object to be represented 
being cut in the upper one. The art of cutting cameos is 
of great antiquity, and was brought to perfection by the 
Greeks. The art of imitating cameos in shell has now 
attained to such perfection as to rival the delicacy and 
finish even of antique workmanship. 

41. Jasper is a dull, massive variety of quartz, with a 
little clay. It has shades of red, yellow, brown, and 
green, owing to the presence of iron in different stages of 
oxidation. The yellow becomes red by heat, which changes 
the yellow oxide of iron to red. When the colors are 
arranged in stripes, it is termed rihhon jasper. It is sus- 
ceptible of high polish, and is therefore much prized for 
ornamental purposes. 

42. When of a deep green, with dark red spots, it is 
named bloodstone. At Paris there is a bust of Christ 
carved from this stone in such a manner that the red spots 
represent the drops of blood. A hard, velvet black jasper 
is called the touchstone. It is used for testing the purity of 
gold alloys. This is done by rubbing the alloy on the stone, 
and comparing the color with that of some known alloy. 

43. Opal is a very beautiful variety of quartz. It con- 
tains ten per cent of water, which is combined with the 
silica. It is softer than quartz, and, unlike it, is easily 
soluble in a hot solution of potash. Its external color is 
a pure white, but when broken it exhibits a play of rich and 
delicate internal reflection. A kind called hydrophane is re- 
markable for becoming transparent when dipped into water. 

44. Sand, pebbles, gravel, cobblestones, etc., consist 



GEOLOGY ANSWERS. 227 

largely of quartz, since it resists the action of the water 
longer than other rock materials. The color is due to the 
various oxides of iron; although it is sometimes a mere 
stain produced by vegetable matter. 

45. Flint is a compact form of quartz of various colors 
—white, brown, and even black. It breaks into fragments 
having a sharp edge and a conchoidal surface. Its use 
formerly for gun-flints and by the Indians for arrow-heads 
is well known. 

46. Hornstone is an impure variety of flint, so named 
from its color and appearance. Buhrstone is a kind of 
flint possessing a cellular texture, which makes its surface 
very rough. In many of the best stones the cavities equal 
the solid portions. 

47. It is found in various States — Ohio, Massachusetts, 
Arkansas, Georgia, etc. The buhrstone of Ohio contains 
some lime, and it has been thought that the cellular char- 
acter may be due to the partial dissolving of the lime out 
of the stone. 

48. Though quartz is a mineral, probably most of the 
flint and hornstone which we find is of animal or vegetable 
origin. Sponges secrete little spicules or points of silica. 
Diatoms are minute one-celled vegetable organisms, too 
small to be seen singly by the naked eye. Yet when 
gathered in countless myriads, they appear as a brown or 
reddish slime. They have the power of separating the 
silex from the water in some unknown way. 

49. Alumina is the oxide of the metal aluminum, 
which, on account of its abundance in clay, is called the 
" clay metal." In hardness, alumina is inferior only to 
the diamond, and will easily scratch quartz. Pure crystal- 
lized alumina, when red, constitutes the 7'uby. 

50. The ruby ranks in value next to the diamond, and 
some perfect specimens have sold at even a higher rate. 
The dull-colored variety is called corundum, andtbs coarse 
granular kind, combined with magnetic iron are, emery. 



228 THE examiner's companion. 

51. Limestone is a compound of lime and carbonic 
acid. It embraces all shades from white and cream color 
to a dense black. It may be known by its softness — being 
easily scratched with a knife — and by its effervescing with 
an acid. Limestone is useful for building purposes, and 
when the carbonic acid is expelled by heat, quick-lime is 
produced. 

52. Pure crystals of limestone are called calc-spar. 
They readily cleave into the rhombohedral form. Trans- 
parent crystals are termed Iceland spar, as the best are 
brought from that country. They beautifully illustrate 
double refraction. Chalk is a porous, uncompacted variety 
of limestone. 

53. Oolite [obn, an egg, and lithos, a stone) is a lime- 
stone consisting of numerous small, rounded grains, 
resembling the roe of a fish. Marl is a mixture of clay 
and carbonate of lime. It is loose, friable, and generally 
full of small shells. It is valuable as a fertilizer. Mag- 
nesian limestone, or dolomite, contains magnesia. It is 
harder than limestone, and does not readily effervesce with 
an acid unless heat is applied. 

54. Marble is crystallized limestone. When pure, it is 
clear and fine-grained, like loaf-sugar. It is of great value 
in the arts. The finest statuary marble comes from Cai'rara 
and the island of Paros, whence the term, Parian marble, 
so famous among the Greek sculptors. 

55. An excellent building marble is quarried at Rut- 
land, Vermont; in Massachusetts; and in Connecticut. 
Marble often contains mica and other impurities, which 
give it a clouded and mottled appearance. This detracts 
from its value, and ruins it for statuary purposes. 

56. Marble is sawed into slabs by means of a thin iron 
plate, a saw without teeth, driven by machinery. The 
friction is produced by sharp sand and water, which are 
constantly applied. The saws penetrate very slowly, not 
more than an inch per hour. 



GEOLOGY ANSWERS. 



229 



57. Sulphate of lime, or, as it is generally called, " gyp- 
sum," is a compound of lime and sulphuric acid. Gypsum 
is readily distinguished from limestone by its inferior 
hardness. It may be scratched with the finger-nail, and 
carved with a knife into any desired shape. It does not 
effervesce with the acids. 

68. Uncrystalline gypsum is commonly known as " plas- 
ter stone." When the stone is crushed and ground it 
forms a white powder sold as plaster, and used as a 
fertilizer. 

59. Crystalline gypsum occurs in fibrous masses with 
a pearly lustre, known as mtin spar; in scales, layers and 
crystals, pellucid as glass, selenUe; and as a snowy-white 
solid, alabaster. 

60. At Grand Rapids, Mich., a mottled variety is found, 
which is turned in a lathe into beautiful vases, goblets, and 
other ornamental objects. In the mammoth cave, Ken- 
tucky, are found exquisite forms resembling leaves, flowers, 
and vines. When burned, gypsum is known as " plaster 

of Paris." 

61. Rocks are divided into three different classes 
according to their mode of formation: Sedimentary, 
igneoKs, and metamorphic. 

62. Sedimentary rocks are those which have been 
deposited by water. They are arranged in strata or lay- 
ers, and are hence sometimes called the stratified rocks. 

63. The four divisions of sedimentary rocks are: 1. 
Sandstone. 2. Conglomerate. 3. Shale. 4. Limestone. 

64. Sandstone is only consolidated sand, and may be 
either siliceous or argillaceous (clayey). Conglomerate is 
only consolidated gravel— the conglomerate taking the name 
siliceous, calcareous, or ferruginous (ferrum, iron), from 
the character of the sandy paste which cements together 
its pebbles. If the conglomerate is compound of rounded 
pebbles, it is often styled a "pudding stone;" if of angu- 
lar fragments, a "breccia" (bret-cha). The Potomac mar- 



230 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

ble, seen in the capitol at Wasliington, is a very beautiful 
calcareous breccia. 

65. Shale, or argillaceous rock, is composed mainly of 
clay, and separates easily into thin, fragile, irregular 
plates. Limestone consists of shells, coral, etc., pulver- 
ized by the waves or precipitated from water holding 
lime in solution. 

66. Igneous rocks are those which have been thrown 
out in a melted state. They are usually not arranged in 
layerSj'and are hence termed the unstratified rocks. They 
are divided into two classes trap and volcanic rocks. 

67. Trap-rocks are so called from the Swedish word 
trap2K(, stairs, because they frequently occur in terrace- 
like bluffs, in the form of massive steps. They are gen- 
erally black or of a dark color, often with shades of green 
or brown. 

68. The hardness of trap-rocks renders them very ser- 
viceable in paving and " macadamizing'' roads, for which 
purjDose they are largely used. Their dull and unattract- 
ive lives, and the difficulty of dressing them into shape, 
unfit them for general purposes. They are, however, very 
appropriate for Gothic edifices on account of the appear- 
ance of age which they give. There are four common 
varieties of the trap-rock, viz.: basalt, greenstone, por- 
phyry and amygdaloid. 

69. Volcanic rocks are of two common varieties, viz.: 
trachyte and lava. 

70. Trachyte (trachus, rough) is so named because of its 
rough, gritty feel. It is porous, has a white, gray, or 
black color, and is usually porphyritic. It is abundant in 
South America — the colossal Chimborazo being a lofty 
trachytic cone — in the extinct volcanic regions of the West, 
on the banks of the Rhine, and in France. 

71. Lava is a term applied to all melted matter 
observed to flow in streams from volcanoes. It consists 
almost entirely of augite (pyroxene) and feldspar. The 



GEOLOOY — AXSWERS. 231 

former constitutes dark colored, and the latter light 
colored lava. When cooled, the upper part of the stream 
is light and porous as a sponge, from the expansion of the 
steam bubbles, and will swim in water, while the lower 
portions are hard and compact like the ancient basalt. 

72. The porous lava is called scoria. Pumice is a f eld- 
spathic scoria with long, slender air-cavities, drawn out by 
the forward movement of the lava stream; large quantities 
of it are often found floating in the ocean. It is much used 
in polishing marble. Obsidian is a glassy-like lava. 

73. Metamorphic rocks are those which have been 
altered by heat, moisture and pressure. Lava penetrating 
sedimentary rocks would materially modify their character; 
the clay would be changed to slate, the limestone converted 
into marble, earthy sandstone and clay rocks into granite- 
like rocks, and the impurities crystallized into various 
minerals. The stratification would be destroyed, and the 

Jossils in part, if not entirely, obliterated. 

74. Granite (from granum, a grain, because of its 
granular structure) consists of feldspar, mica, and quartz. 
The feldspar shows a smooth surface of cleavage in two 
directions, and is usually of a white or flesh color; the mica 
may be readily recognized by its glistening look, and by 
being easily separated into thin layers; the quartz has a 
glassy lustre and no cleavage. 

75. Graphic granite is a variety in which the quartz is 
imperfectly crystallized into long, slender crystals. When 
the rock is broken crosswise, the ends of these crystals 
present forms somewhat resembling Hebrew characters. 

76. No. Sometimes granite has a very coarse structure, 
the crystals being a foot or more in diameter; at other 
times it is so fine that one can with diflSculty distinguish 
the constituent minerals. 

77. Granite is quarried in great quantities in the 
Eastern States for building purposes. New Hampshire 



232 THE examiner's companion. 

and Massachusetts are noted for their extensive beds. 
They may be called the Granite States of the Union. 

78. Gneiss (nice) differs from granite only in being 
Stratified. Indeed, the two kinds of rock pass into each 
other so insensibly that they are often difficult to 
distinguish. 

79. The origin of gneiss is therefore doubtless the 
same as that of granite, both being made from stratified 
rocks; when the stratification entirely disappeared, granite 
being the result; and when only partially or not at all, 
gneiss. Because of the ease with which it divides into 
thin layers, this rock is much used for flagging. 

80. Mica schist is a gneiss rock, consisting mostly of 
mica.. The dust in the roads of places abounding in this 
rock is full of the fine glistening particles of mica. 

81. Syenite is a granite in which the mica is replaced 
by hornblende. It is so-called from the city of Syene, 
Upper Egypt, where the ancient Egyptians quarried it for 
monumental purposes. The granite found near Aberdeen, 
Scotland, and extensively imported into this country, is of 
this class. 

82. Yes; it possesses great strength, a half-inch cube 
requiring to crush it, a pressure of 24,556 pounds. 
The celebrated Quincy granite is also a syenite. Many 
public edifices are built of this stone; for example, the 
Bunker Hill Monument, the custom-houses at Boston and 
New Orleans, and the Astor House in New York. 

83. Quartzite is a rock composed of quartz sand 
cemented by heat. In a quartz district, because of the 
slow weathering, the hills present a scenery of savage 
wildness, but wonderful grandeur. 

84. The rocks of the earth's crust are divided accord- 
ing to their structure into two classes, the stratified and 
the unstratified rocks. The former are arranged in layers, 
the latter are not. The former were generally produced by 
aqueous, the latter by igneous agencies. The former mark 



GEOLOGY ANSWERS. 233 

the periods of rest in the world's history, the latter chron- 
icle its convulsions. 

85, Upon the exterior of the crust the stratified rocks 
are largely in excess, occupying probably ^l of the sur- 
face; upon the interior, however, the unstratified comprise 
the whole mass, and extend to a depth of perhaps fifty miles. 

86. Historical geology deals almost entirely with the 
stratified rocks, and nearly all of its principles are based 
upon facts which they disclose. 

BY. As soon as dry land was formed, it began to be worn 
away by the ceaseless action of the rain and the restless 
sea, depositing the debris at the bottom of the ocean. 
Thus, while the earth's crust has been growing from below 
by the formation of unstratified, it has been growing above 
by the formation of stratified rocks. These materials are 
arranged in comparatively flat layers. In this way the. 
earth would be covered over by successive deposits like 
the coats of an onion. 

88. A stratum includes one or more layers, or laminae, 
of any particular kind of rock. A formation is composed 
of several strata which were deposited in the same period. 
A group is a part of a formation, including such strata as 
are in any way related to one another. The laminse, or 
layers, of a group bear the same relation to one another 
that the groups of a formation do. 

89. The unstratified rocks are found as shapeless masses 
underlying, overlying, and sometimes penetrating the 
stratified rocks. 

90. Veins are fissures in the rock strata; filled with 
crystallized mineral, such as fluor spar, quartz, etc. They 
are of all sizes, from an inch to many feet in thickness. 
We often find rocks, and even pebbles, crowded with veins 
sometimes not thicker than a sheet of paper. 

91. Dikes are wide fissures filled with igneous rocks 
or recent lava. They are generally larger than veins, have 
their sides more nearly parallel, ramify less commonly in 



284 THE examiner's companion. 

branching veins, and contain but a single kind of rock. 
The term dike means a wall. It is derived from the fact 
that the trap is generally harder than the adjacent rock, 
and hence disintegrates more slowly when exposed to 
the elements. 

92. The history of the earth's crust is divided into 
four great eras or times, known as the Eozoic (dawn of 
life), the Paleozoic (ancient life), the Mesozoic (middle 
life) and the Cenozoic (recent life). These names indicate 
the successive stages in the development of life on the globe. 

93. I. Eozoic TIME. Age of Protozoans. II. Pale- 
ozoic TIME. 1. Silurian Age {Age of MollusJcs). 2. 
Devonian Age {Age of Fishes). 3. Carboniferous 
Age {Age of Coal-Plants). III. Mesozoic time. Age 
of Reptiles. IV. Cenozoic time. Age of Mammals. 

94. The oldest rocks now known upon the surface of 
the earth probably represent Eozoic time. The following 
periods are recognized: 1. Laurentian period. 2. Huro- 
nian period. 

95. The Mosaic account informs us that on the third 
day the waters were gathered into one place and the dry 
land appeared, and that vegetation was brought forth as a 
later creation of the same day. 

96. The Paleozoic time is divided into three ages to 
mark the great life-changes which occurred. These are 
called the Silurian or Age of mollusks, the Devonian or 
Age of fishes, and the Carboniferous or Age of coal-plants. 

97. There are seven periods of the Silurian age, viz.: 
1. Oriskany period. 2. Lower Helderberg period. 3. 
Salina period. 4. Niagara period, 5. Hudson period. 
6. Trenton period. 1. Potsdam period. 

98. This period is named from Potsdam, a town in north- 
ern New York, where the rock is exposed in the quarries to a 
thickness of seventy feet. The formation is well devel- 
oped in Pennsylvania, and can be traced westward through 
Michigan, along the Southern shore of Lake Superior, 



OEOLOGY -ANSWERS. 235 

through Wisconsin and Minnesota to the Black Hills 
of Dakota, Southward along the Appalachian range from 
Vermont to Alabama, and is known in Texas. 

99. The Mosaic account tells us that the sun and moon 
were created on the fourth day. Geology shows us that 
the distinctive feature of the early Silurian age was the 
partial clearing of the sky after the murky clouds of 
the Eozoic. 

100. The Trenton formation extends along the great 
Appalachian chain of mountains on the east, thence out- 
crops at various points Westward to the Mississippi River, 
and beyond the Rocky Mountains. It is more widely dis- 
tributed than any similar deposit. 

101. This formation is exposed to view along the 
Hudson and Mohawk rivers, on Lake Michigan and Green 
Bay, through the Mississippi Valley, and along the Appa- 
lachian Range to Alabama. 

102. This is a continental formation like the Ti-enton. 
It is found in Canada, and extends south through the 
Appalachian region, and West through the Mississippi 
Valley. It takes its name from the fact that the great 
cataract of Niagara pours over a rocky wall of this period. 
The peculiar form of the fall is owing to the fact that the 
soft 'shale below wears away more rapidly than the hard 
rock above, thus leaving a cavern behind the falling sheet. 

103. This period is named from the Salina salt springs, 
near Syi-acuse, N. Y. The formation runs in a narrow 
belt^arallel with the Niagara limestone, as far Westward 
as Milwaukee. 

104. The rocks consist mainly of shales, marls, and 
some limestone. The salif erous beds are about 1 ,000 feet 
in thickness, showing a long continuance of the peculiar 
conditions under which they were formed. 

105. The Lower Helderberg period takes its name from 
the Helderberg Mountains, near Albany, N. Y. The rocks 
gradually disappear in the Western part of the State, but 



236 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

are conspicuous Southward along the Appalachian range, 
and reappear in Maine. 

106. This is also a great limestone formation, but 
differs from the Trenton and Niagara groups in being 
thickest on the Eastern border. The lower beds in New 
York and Virginia are used for hydraulic cement, whence 
their name — the " Water-Lime Group!''' 

107. This formation is named from Oriskany Falls, 
it crops out at points in Maine, extends Southward along 
the Appalachian region, and Westward to Missouri. It is 
the passage-rock from the Silurian to the Devonian. 

108. It is mostly a light, rough sandstone, often highly 
calcareous. Its thickness in New Yorkvai'ies from twenty 
feet at the typical locality to only a few inches toward the 
Hudson; in Pennsylvania it is 200 feet thick. Its color is 
white, passing to a reddish brown where iron is present. 

109. In the Devonian age there are four periods, named 
as follows: 1. Upper Helderberg period. 2. Hamilton 
period. 3. Chemung period. 4. Catskill period. 

110. The lower groujD is found in Eastern New York, 
and is thickest along the Appalachians; the upper group 
is a great continental limestone like the Trenton and the 
Niagara. At the West, in the absence of the Oriskany, 
the Corniferous often lies directly upon the Niagara lime- 
stone, except where the Salina rocks intervene. 

111. This formation extends across New York, Mich- 
igan, thence West of the Mississippi River, and Southward 
through Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Tennessee. 

112. The Chemung formation is found in New York, 
and attains a great thickness in Pennsylvania. This period 
contains in New York two epochs, (l). The Portage 
Group receives its name from the celebrated falls in the 
Genesee River. (2). The Cliemung Group, named from 
the Narrows in the Chemung River, is composed of coarse 
shales or shaly sandstones of an olive or a greenish color. 

113. This formation constitutes the upper range of the 



GEOLOGY ANSWERS. 237 

mountains after which it is named. It is there j^erhaps 
2,500 feet thick, while South, along the Appalachians, it is 
more than twice that thickness. 

114. The beds consist of shales and sandstones, of a 
greenish or a reddish color, and often times gritty char- 
acter. The harder strata of the sand-rock sometimes 
weather in a peculiar way, dividing into thin layers 
resembling a pile of boards. 

115. This age is so named from the abundance of coal 
found in its time. The periods are, 1. Sub-carboniferous 
period. 2. Carboniferous j)eriod. 3. Permian period. 

116. This formation is so named because it is the base 
of the great cai'boniferous system of the continent. It is 
found in the Appalachian region, and Westward through 
Iowa, Illinois, and Mississippi. 

117. In the Appalachians it is a vast deposit of sand- 
stone and shale, often several thousand feet thick. At the 
West, it is a compact yellowish or grayish limestone, of 
great thickness and wide extent. Thin seams of coal 
sometimes occur, and these beds are known as the False 
Coal Measures. 

118. The limestone abounds in crinoids. Nowhere else 
are these stone-lilies — the blossoms of the Sub-carboniferous 
sea— found in such profusion and beauty. There are also 
many brachiopods and fish-remains. In England this rock 
is termed the Mountain Limestone. When the stone is 
worn away by the elements, the round, hard joints of the 
crinoids are found lying loose in the soil, and are gathered 
and strung as beads by the children. 

119. Several celebrated caves are in this rock; for 
example, the Mammoth Cave, the Wyandotte Cave, etc. 
In many places in Indiana and Kentucky, " sink-holes " 
are abundant, sometimes so numerous as to interfere with 
plowing. These are openings in the earth where the soil 
has been washed down probably into subterranean caves 
never yet seen by man. 



THE EXAMIiiEE's COMPANION. 

120. The Mammoth Cave, in Kentucky, is the largest 
in the world. It has been explored to a distance of over 
thirty miles. Views of the grandest description are here 
presented. Royal thrones, sparry grottoes, diamond arches, 
flowers of every zone sparkling with crystalline beauty, 
here and there reflect the light of the traveler's torch. Halls 
decorated with fantastic pillars, and marble statues draped 
with crystal mantles, charm with their magical splendor. 

121. At one point in the Mammoth Cave the River 
Styx rolls its sad waters beneath dark vaults, the windings 
of which are indented by a thousand rocks. In its dismal 
depths gropes a kind of fish — the Cyprinodon — which is 
blind, as it should be, since of what service are eyes where 
absolute darkness reigns. 

122. The great coal-beds of the country lie in six 
detached areas. They are styled respectively the Rhode 
Island, Appalachian, Michigan, Illinois, Missouri, and 
Texas coal-fields. The Rhode Island is the smallest, and 
comprises an area of only 1,000 square miles; the Mis- 
souri is the largest, and covers 100,000 square miles. 

123. The Carboniferous period was inaugurated by the 
formation of a conglomerate sandstone, the Millstone 
Grit. During this era the Devonian fishes and ferns were 
buried beneath vast deposits of sand and gravel. Times of 
semi-emergence intervened, when, for a brief interval, the 
land was partially clothed with vegetation. The coal- 
measures proper present stratified rocks of every kind — 
sandstone, shales, limestone, etc. 

124. This formation is named from the ancient king- 
om of Permia, in Russia, where it was first recognized. 

It is wanting in the older States, but is well developed in 
Kansas, and has been recognized in Nebraska and Texas. 

125. The Mesozoic or middle-life of Geologic History 
comprises but one age, that of reptiles. The periods of 
the Mesozoic time are: 1. Triassic period. 2. Jurassic 
period. 3. Cretaceous period, 



GEOLOGY ANSWERS 239 

126. These groups are not fully separated in America. 
The Triassic (triple) takes its name from the fact that, in 
Germany it is composed of three distinct groups, viz.: 
the Bunter Sandstein or colored sandstone, the MuschelJcalk 
or mussel chalk, and the Keuper, a miner's term, meaning 
a group of red and green marls and shells. It is some- 
times termed the Xew Red Sandstone, to distinguish it 
from the Old Red Sandstone of the Devonian. The 
Jurassic period is so-called because it is extensively devel- 
oped in the Jura Mountains, Switzerland. The foreign 
divisions are the Lias, Oolite, and Wealden. 

127. The Cretaceous rocks occur on the Atlantic coast 
from New York to South Carolina, along the Gulf through 
Texas, far northward over the slopes of the Rocky Mount- 
ains, and along the Pacific coast westward of the Sierra 
Nevada. 

128. The Cenozoic or recent life of geologic history 
comprises only one age, that of mammals. The periods are, 
1. Tei'tiary period. 2. Post-Tertiary period. 

129 The epochs of the Tertiary period are as follows: 
1. Lignitic epoch. 2. Alabama epoch. 3. Yorktown 
(Va.) epoch. 4. Sumter (S. C.) epoch. 

130. The epochs of the Post-Tertiary period may be 
named as follows: 1. Glacial epoch. 2. Champlain epoch. 
3. Terrace epoch. 

131. Sand-dunes are hills of sand heaped up along the 
shore. They are formed by sand drifted inland by the 
wind, as snow is piled in drifts. The sand is driven with 
such force as to smooth the surface even of quartz rocks, 
and to wear holes in window-glass. The sand dunes of 
Cape Cod, Long Island shore. Lake Michigan, etc., are 
conspicuous features of the landscape. Sometimes long, 
narrow sand-ridges, or Osars, extend back from the shore 
for miles. 

132. The Mosaic Account states that on the fifth day 
the waters brought forth abundantly the moving creature 



240 THE examinee's companion. 

that hath life, the fowl that flies above the earth, and 
great whales. The sixth day was characterized by two 
works — the creation of mammals, and lastly of man, to be 
the lord of aW created things. 

133. Geology gives us the same general outline. In 
the Palaeozoic Age, the seas swarmed with life. In 
the Mesozoic Age, birds appeared, while reptiles (styled, 
in i^opular language, great whales or sea-monsters, as the 
word may be translated) became the dominant life. In the 
dawn of the Cenozoic, mammals of enormous size and in 
prodigious numbers covered the earth; while at the close, 
man appeared to crown the creative work. 

134. We have no means of deciding the exact time 
when the human race first appeared on the earth. The 
most scientific man is unable to name centuries or years 
with any degree of accuracy in connection with any geolog- 
ical event. 

135. In the loam (Loess), peat-bog and cave-earth of 
the Post-Tertiaiy Period, we first find rude stone imple- 
ments, tree canoes, and the embers of the fire .which man 
alone can kindle or sustain. 

136. Side by side with these are the remains of the 
mammoth, cave-bear, rhinoceros, Irish elk, etc. It would 
seem that about the time of the glacial epoch, probably 
just as the great ice-floats began to melt away, man sud- 
denly appeared among the mighty quadrajDeds which then 
covered the earth, to contest the supremacy. 

137. The life of the pre-historic man has been classified 
according to the character of the fossil remains in the fol- 
lowing manner: (Edward Lartet, Vogt, and others.) 
First, The Stone Age, with the following epochs: 1. Ejioch 
of extinct animals, mammoth, cave-bear, etc. 2. Epoch 
of migrated existing animals, or Reindeer Epoch. 3. 
Epoch of domesticated animals, or Polished Stone Epoch. 
Second, The Metal Age, with the following Epochs: 1 
The Bronze Epoch. 2. The Iron Epoch. 



GEOLOGY ANSAVERS. 241 

138. The primeval man during this epoch dwelt in 
caves, dressed in skins, and made weapons chipped out of 
the rough flint, by means of which he fought the cave- 
bear, hunted the Irish elk, and speared the mammoth. He 
was rude and barbarous, perhaps a cannibal, yet he made 
fire, instruments of offense and defence, articles of pottery- 
ware for domestic use, sewed skins into garments, adorned 
his person with strings of rudely-carved shells, wrought 
out images emblematic of his political or religious views, 
and buried iiis dead in caves with religious rites and 
ceremonies. 

139. In this epoch man advanced in knowledge, learned 
to work in bone, ivory, and reindeer-antlers; to catch fish; 
to make saws, knives, and other tools; to form amulets 
and charms of bon^; to ornament the instruments of the 
chase; and in his leisure to sketch on ivory the outlines of 
the animals he pursued. 

140. The third epoch witnessed a still higher condition. 
Skiffs were made in which the primitive man ventured out 
on the sea, and caught the fish of deeper waters. He 
made nets for fishing near the shore. He domesticated 
the dog. He attempted agriculture; raised corn, ground 
it, and thus became less dependent on the chances of the 
chase. He interred his dead in vaults, and erected monu- 
ments to mark their last resting-place. 

141. The Metal Age indicates a great advance in civil- 
ization. Thenard asserted that we may judge of the 
civilization of any nation by the degree of perfection it 
has attained in working iron. We may safely say that, 
without a knowledge of the metals, man would have 
remained a barbarian. Iron ores do not readily attract 
attention, and their reduction is a very difficult process. 
The method whereby iron becomes utilized in the arts, 
generally requires chemical knowledge and high progress 
in science. 

142. Gold is found native, and by its glitter attracts 
16 



242 THE examiner's companion. 

the eye even of the savage. Copper occurs pure, and its 
ores are rather widely diffused, as are also those of tin. 

143. It is strange that bronze (brass), which is an alloy 
of copper and tin, should have been the first metal used. 
We can hardly understand the cause of this, since the 
metals must have been known before the alloy could be 
manufactured. 

144. Tools of a better character were now made, and 
life wore an improved aspect. Extensive villages were 
built on piles driven deep in the lake-bottom, looms were 
erected, cloth was woven and made into garments. The 
horse, ass, ox, sheep and goat were domesticated in great 
numbers. Hatchets, reaping-hooks, mills, pendants, rings, 
hair-pins, barbed fish-hooks, and numerous articles of orna- 
ment were manufactured. The clothing became more 
graceful, and the hair was adorned with the most elaborate 
taste. Wheat, barley and oats were cultivated. The 
baker's art was established. Glass was discovered. Mats 
of bark and cord were made. Apples, pears, berries, and 
other fruits were stored for winter's use. 

145. With the discovery of iron, civilization rapidly 
advanced. This metal marked the latest period of primeval 
development. The art of metallurgy had made great 
progress during the bronze epoch, but now assumed new 
importance. Extensive smelting works were erected. The 
potter's wheel was invented. Better tools were made. 
Silver and lead were discovered. Coined money was intro- 
duced and commerce flourished. Agriculture was prac- 
ticed on a large scale. Fruit trees were cultivated. Civil- 
ization was fairly established. At this point the written 
records and oral traditions take up the story of the past 
and the naturalist's labors cease as the historian's begin. 



•^ ZOOLOGY. ^ 




Chimpanzee.— A large ape inhabiting the western 
coast of Africa, from about 10° north to 10° south of the 
equator. It attains the height of 4 feet, and its body is 
clothed with long, coarse, black hair, but the hands, face, 
and large ears are naked. The teeth resemble those of 
man. The head is flattened above, and has a retiring 
forehead, and a high bony crest over the high brows. The 
facial angle is 35°. The fore-fingers, when the animal 
is upright, do not quite reach the knee. In walking, they 
tread on the outer edge of the foot. It is said that they 
live in societies in the Avoods. When domesticated, the 
Chimpanzee learns to walk, sit, and eat like a human 
being. It is good tempered when young, but when grown 
older is said to become ferocious. 

Cjrorilla.— A large monkey inhabiting the western 
shores of Africa. It is as large as man, and is remarka- 
ble for its strength and ferocity. Its heavy frame, large 
and powerful jaws, wary and ferocious disposition, and 
muscular strength, render it one of the most formidable 
of the apes. 

Orang-Oatang.— The Orang-Outang differs somewhat 
widely from man, and is adapted to an arboreal life. It 
inhabits Southern Asia. In the wild state it is frugivor- 
ous (fruit-feeding), not even eating eggs, though the teeth 

(243) 



244 THE examiner's companion. 

are adapted to either vegetable or animal food. Matured 
Orang-Outangs of the same species and sex vary in 
height from five to over seven feet. 

Gibbon. — The Gibbon is distinguished by the length 
of its arms and the slenderness of its form. With a 
height of three feet, the reach of the extended arms is six 
feet, enabling it to swing through the air among branches 
twenty feet apart. It is of a black color, with the excep- 
tion of the hands and feet and a circle around the face, 
which are white. This species of monkey has neither tail 
nor cheek-pouch. 

Siamang.— An animal of Sumatra, inferior to the 
Chimpanzee and Orang-outang, both in structure and intel- 
ligence, and belonging to that division of monkeys called 
Gibbons. It derives its specific name from the adhesion 
of the first and second fingers as far as the joint which bears 
the nail. The posterior callosities of this genus link it to 
the monkeys proper, which have tails and cheek-pouches, 
or some equivalent modification of the digestive organs. 

Sacred Monkey.— The Sacred Monkey receives 
divine honors from the natives of India, who believe it a 
metamorphosed prince, and punish its slaughter by death, 
although a trifling fine, compounds for the murder of a 
man. It is permitted to ravage their gardens at will. 

Gnenon.— The Guenon approaches the ape in the 
shortness of its muzzle. With bushy whiskers and varied 
colors, it is the fop of the monkeys. Its cheek-pouches 
will contain two days' food. Driven by famine, it descends 
into the fields, and commits great havoc. Docile in 
nature, it is easily tamed, but, is an arrant thief, and while 
gravely receiving caresses, .will pick the pockets of its 
confiding admirer. 

Baboon. — The Baboon, with its dog-like muzzle, is the 
ugliest and most ferocious of the monkeys. It dwells 
among craggy rocks, which it climbs with great agility. 
Its food consists of bulbous roots, eggs, insects, etc. It 



Zoology. 245 

devours scorpions with great dexterity, whipping off their 
stings so quickly as to give them no chance to strike it. 

Mandrill,— The Mandrill is of the same tribe as the 
Baboon, and is conspicuous for its variety of color — its 
nose being red, with a bright scarlet tip; its cheeks, a 
brilliant blue; its beard, citron-yellow; its hind-parts, violet; 
and its body a grayish brown, tinged above with olive. 

Ateles.— The Ateles, or four-fingered monkey, has no 
thumb on the anterior extremity. On account of the 
length, flexibility, and slenderness of its limbs, it is termed 
the Spider Monkey. The tail is prehensile, and the end 
being bare and sensitive, can be used as a fifth hand to 
pick up small objects or to insert into the hollows of trees 
to hook out eggs. 

Bear-Howler.— The Bear-Howler has the power of 
dilating the larynx, so as to render the voice louder than 
the roar of a lion, having been heard two miles off. The 
Saki is a striking example of the non-prehensiles, as its 
tail is short and so covered with hair as to look in some 
species like a mere knob. 

Marmoset. — The Marmoset, by its sharp, crooked 
claws, and the short thumb on its hind feet, stands at the 
extreme of the monkey tribe in America. Its food is not 
grasped by the fingers, but held between the forepaws. 
Several species have tufts of hair projecting from the sides 
of the head. 

lieanur.- One of a family of nocturnal mammals allied 
to the monkeys, but of smaller size, and having a sharp and 
fox-like muzzle. They feed upon birds, insects, and fruit, 
and are natives of Madagascar and the neighboring islands. 

Baffled liCmur.- The Ruffled Lemur is the largest 
and handsomest of this family. Wrapped up in its long, 
bushy tail, it passes the day in sleep, and only comes forth 
at night to search for food. 

Aye-Aye. — The Aye-Aye has some resemblance to a 
squirrel, but the form of its head and limbs allies it to the 



246 THE examiner's companion. 

Lemur. The middle finger of its fore-leg, long, slender 
and hairless, is adapted to extract worms from their holes 
in the ground, or in trees. It is classed by some naturalists 
with the monkey tribe, from the hand-like structure of its 
hinder feet. It is about the size of a hare, and is called 
Aye-Aye by the natives of Madagascar (where it is found) 
from its peculiar cry. 

Graceful lioris.— The Graceful Loris inhabits 
Ceylon, Java, etc. Prowling through the darkness, it is 
almost invisible, save for its round, shiny eyes. Espying 
a sleeping bird among the branches, it creeps towards it 
with noiseless, imperceptible movements, until it can place 
its fingers over its prey, when it seizes it with a spring 
sudden as a flash. 

liion. — The Lion is known as the " King of Beasts," 
more from his majestic appearance than any nobleness of 
disposition. The tail is tufted, while the neck of the male 
is ornamented with a flowing mane that in some varieties 
reaches nearly to the ground. His tawny, uniform color, 
closely corresponding to that of the desert tracts '\a which 
he lives, aids his concealment in stealing upon his prey. 
The pupil of his eye is round, giving as extensive horizontal 
vision as vertical; and his strength is such that he can 
carry off a cow with ease, even leaping broad dikes and 
keeping ahead of pursuing horsemen for miles without 
dropping it. He naturally feeds at night, so that his 
apparent magnanimity in sometimes sparing man and beast 
during the day is only because he is already satiated with 
food. Like other animals, he has no desire to kill merely 
for the sake of killing. The lion is found in Asia, and all 
over Africa. A variety of the lion, remarkable for having 
no mane, is found in India. 

Tiger. — The Tiger is a fierce and rapacious animal of 
the genus Tigris, which includes but a single species, 
T. regalis [Felis tigris of Linnaeus), found in the warmer 
parts of Asia, chiefly in India, and the Indian islands. Its 



ZOOLOGYo 247 

ferocity, especially that of the dreaded " man-eater," is 
fearful, while its strength enables it to carry off a buffalo 
thrown over its shoulder. The color of the tiger is of a 
bright orange-yellow ground; the face, throat, and under- 
side of the belly being nearly white; the whole elegantly 
striped by a series of transverse black bands or bars. He 
has no mane, and his whole frame, though less elevated 
than the lion, is of a more graceful make. In the East the 
tiger is considered as the emblem of power. 

Pama. — The Puma inhabits North and South America. 
Its uniform dun color gives a mimicry for its protection 
while crouching upon the branches of trees. Having a 
black tail-tuft and a sameness of color, it has been called 
the "American Lion," though none of its habits resembles 
those of its African namesake. In different parts of the 
continent the puma is styled the "painter," the "panther," 
the "cougar," and even the "catamount," though there is 
no panther in America, and the true catamount is the wild 
cat of Europe. 

liCopard. — The Leopard, now considered identical 
with the panther, inhabits Africa, India, and the adjacent 
islands. Smaller than the tiger, it is as beautiful, and its 
mimicry as striking — its skin being marked with circles of 
dark spots instead of stripes, corresponding to the leaves 
of the trees among which it conceals itself. From the 
great flexibility of the limbs and spine, it can take surprising 
leaps, swim, crawl, and ascend trees. 

Jaguar.— The Jaguar has a body four or five feet 
long, with fur colored brownish-yellow, and black spots. 
It haunts the wooded banks of great rivers in the hottest 
parts of America, and is found from Brazil to Texas. It is 
a voracious animal, attacking oxen, horses, and any smaller 
animals that come in its way, but seldom man. It roars 
much by night. It is usually killed by being driven by dogs 
up a tree, where it is dispatched by bullets. It is the largest 
of the American carnivora; and from its size, strength, 



248 THE examiner's companion. 

and ferocity, it is often called the South American Tiger. 

liynx.— The Lynx is anatomically distinguished by 
having two less molars in the upper jaw. Only two 
species are found in North America — the Canada Lynx 
and the Wild Cat. The former has its ears tipped with 
pencil-like tufts of black hair, while its prevailing color is 
gray with a wash of black. It lives upon birds and small 
mammals, pursuing them among the branches of the trees 
as well as upon the ground. Its gait is by bounds with all 
four feet at once, the back being arched. The Wild Cat 
may be recognized by its lacking long ear-tufts, and by 
having the inside of the legs banded or spotted. 

Civet.— The Civet is a carniverous animal, ranking 
between the weasel and fox, from two to three feet long 
and ten or twelve inches high; of a brownish-gray color, 
with transverse black bands or spots on the body and tail. 
It is a native of North Africa. 

Oenet. — The Genet is also a carnivorous animal, allied 
to the civet, of a gray color, spotted and banded with 
black or brown, and found in the South of Europe and in 
Africa. It has retractile claws; wages war on rats and 
mice, and in many parts of the East is domesticated. 

Hyena. — A carnivorous mammal allied to the dog, 
from which it differs by having only four toes to each foot, 
a bristly mane, the hips very much lower than the shoulders, 
and an odor from a gland under the tail. Its habits are 
nocturnal, and it generally feeds upon carion. It is found in 
Africa and Asia. The striped hyena is the hyena striata. 
The hyena is the true scavenger among the mammals, 
removing offal which would endanger the health of man. 

Wolf. — The Wolf, of which there is now considered 
to be but one species in North America, is the best repre- 
sentative of the Family. It generally hunts in packs. 
Unless impelled by hunger, they seldom attack prey larger 
than themselves, and they are so wary of traps that a trav- 
eler, when pursued, has frightened them away by merely 



ZOOLOGY. 249 

trailing a cord. Their bite, unlike that of any other ani- 
mal, is a succession of quick, violent snaps. Their rapacity 
is such that when impelled by hunger they will make a 
meal of a harness or even of old shoes that may be within 
their reach. 

Jackal.— An animal allied to the wolf, of a yellowish- 
gray color mixed with tawny, having a very pointed muzzle, 
and rather short tail. It is gregarious and nocturnal in its 
habits, and remarkable for its piercing wail. It is a native 
of India and Persia. Other species are found in Africa. 
All jackals feed on carrion, but hunt small game, and are 
known to feed sometimes on fruits. 

Fox.— The Fox is mostly nocturnal, springing upon its 
prey as it passes by, or stealing upon it while asleep. Its 
dentition is calculated for a mixed diet, so that mammals, 
birds, molluscs, and even grapes, furnish a dainty meal. 
Its characteristic is craftiness. Its maternal instinct is also 
highly developed, and it will peril its life to save its 
young. Different species abound in all parts of the world. 
So varied, however, are their individual markings accord- 
ing to age and locality, that naturalists disagree as to the 
number of species in North America, or whether there is 
more than one genus. 

Weasel.— The Weasels are greatly diversified in size, 
habits, color, etc. All have fine fur, short legs, and slim, 
flexible bodies, which enable them by gliding movements 
to pursue their prey through small openings. Nearly all 
have glands secreting a disagreeable odor. Tliey have a 
difference in dentition and manner of walking. The 
weasel, at the north, during summer, is reddish-brown 
above and white beneath. It changes from brown to 
white in October and November, and back again in March, 
except the extremity of the tail, which is always black. 
At the South, the same species does not vary its fur. These 
alterations are effected, not by shedding the coat, but by 
changes in the color of the hair. 



250 THE examiner's companion. 

Mink.— The common Mink, found in North America 
and Northern parts of Europe, can swim and dive well, 
and is generally to be found on the banks of rivers, where 
it preys upon small fish, frogs, rats, mice, etc. Its fur is 
fine, but not very valuable. When irritated the mink 
exhales a fetid, musky smell. It is about 1 7 inches long 
to the tail, which is about half the length of the body. 
Its general color is dark brownish-chestnut, tail nearly 
black, and the end of the chin white. 

JSkank.— Eighteen species are known, eight of which 
are found in North America, and ten in South America. 
The genus is specially distinguished by its exceedingly 
large anal gland, which exhales a putrid and offensive 
odor, shed by the animal when annoyed or irritated. The - 
scent is so powerful, that it endures for many years. The 
fore feet of the skunk are adopted to digging holes, in 
which it hibernates without becoming torpid — entering 
its retreat in the fall, fat, and coming out in the spring lean. 

Badger. — The Badger, inhabiting the northern part of 
the continent, has long silky hair and short tail. Its stout 
claws are well adapted for burrowing. Though so peace- 
able as to resign its nest without a struggle to those much 
weaker than itself, it can bite more fiercely than any ani- 
mal of its size. Its skin is so loose and thick, that while 
the teeth of its assailants can make little impression upon 
it, the badger can turn itself round in it, so as to bite them 
in their tenderest parts. It feeds upon small animals, 
which it digs out of their burrows, leaving dangerous trap- 
holes for the unwary traveler. 

WolTerine.— The Wolverine inhabits the northern 
parts of Europe and America. Extravagant stories are 
told by trappers of its strength and ferocity, whereas it is 
harmless to man, and only annoying by devouring ani- 
mals caught in traps, and by destroying the hunter's hoards. 
With a sagacity rarely permitting it to be ensnared, it 
skillfully tears the trap to pieces, and carries off the bait. 



ZOOLOOY. 251 

River Otter. — The River Otter has but one species 
in North America, though it ranges from Hudson's Bay to 
the Gulf of Mexico. Its webbed feet exhibit an approach 
to the amphibious mammals. The peculiar position of its 
eye enables it, with a slight motion of the head, to see the 
iish on which it preys, whether swimming above, below, 
beside, behind, or before. It burrows in the banks of 
streams, forming the entrance under water, and providing 
numerous cells to occupy, according to the height of the 
stream. Its pastime of sliding in companies into the 
water, down a snow-bank in winter and a slippery clay-bank 
in summer, presents a singular feature of animal life. 

Grizzly Bear.— The Grizzly Bear, so called because 
of the intermixture in its fur of grayish hairs with black 
and brown, is the most ferocious of the North American 
carnivora. Its sharp, powerful claws, often five inches long", 
move independently of one another, and, when the animal 
strikes with its paws, cut like so many chisels. Its strength 
enables it to carry off a bison, and dig a pit in which to bury it. 

Black Bear.— While the Grizzly Bear is limited to the 
Rocky Mountain regions, the Black Bear, under a variety 
of names, is distributed over North America. An expert 
climber, honey is its favorite food; though its powerful 
claws are adapted to tearing up young shoots and succu- 
lent roots. Its mode of attack is to rear upon its back 
feet, and seizing its victim between its fore legs, either to 
suffocate it with its embrace, or disembowel it with its 
hind claws. In the colder latitudes it passes the winter 
usually in a hollow log, without becoming insensible. 

Polar Bear.— The Polar Bear is the largest member 
of this family. It feeds on seals, fish, and walruses, which 
it pursues in the water, swimming and diving with great 
skill. To secure firm footing on the ice, the soles of the 
feet are thickly covered with long hairs. It passes Jan- 
uary and February in a lethargy, buried in the snow or 
hidden in the ice-rifts. 



252 THE examiner's companton. 

Raccoon. — The Raccoon is the only representative of 
its family in the United States. It derives its specific 
name from its habit of dipping its food in the water before 
eating. Though its entire foot is naked, yet in walking 
it does not, like the bear, bring its whole sole to the ground. 
Omnivorous in its food, it is, according to circumstances, a 
fisher, a hunter, a trapper, a reaper, or a fly-catcher, having 
the instinctive cunning of the fox, the inquisitive meddle- 
someness of the monkey, the greediness of the bear, and 
the slyness of the cat. 

£ared Seals. — The Eared Seals are principally 
found in the Pacific Ocean. The most remarkable species 
is the Northern Sea Bear, so called from the striking 
resemblance of its head to that of the Ursidse. It is 
polygamous, families of over a hundred, with one male 
chief, keeping entirely separate. Each dam, in returning 
from a fishing excursion, will pass by thousands of others 
lying along the shore and bleating like sheep, till it comes to 
its single cub. The Sea Bear furnishes the choicest seal fur. 

Conimoii Seal. — The Common Seal abounds upon the 
Atlantic coast. The different species vary in length from 
three to twenty feet, and present every variety of marking 
and color. Their eyes are large and full of intelligence, 
and the animal is easily tamed. These seals have the sin- 
gular habit of swallowing stones, as many as four pounds of 
sharp pebbles having been found in a single stomach, but no 
satisfactory explanation of this phenomenon has been given. 

Walrus. — The Walrus is an aquatic mammal, resem- 
bling the seal, and allied to it; — called also Morse and Sea- 
cow. It has long canine teeth, used for locomotion and 
defense, and feeds upon sea-weed and smaller marine 
animals. Its flesh is eaten, and the skin and ivory are 
highly valued. It is gregarious in its habits. The flesh 
is highly valued by the inhabitants of the Arctic regions, 
and its skin makes excellent coach-traces. 

Camel. — The Camel family, including hornless, rumi- 



ZOOLOGY. 253 

nant animals, are distinguished by the presence of two incis- 
ors in the upper jaw. The genus Camelus embraces two 
species, which are known only in the domesticated state. 
The dromedary, or African camel, has one hunch on the 
back; the common, or Asiatic camel, has two humps. The 
camel, by its power of sustaining abstinence from drink for 
many days, from the peculiar formation of its stomach, and 
of subsisting on a few coarse shrubs, is peculiarly fitted 
for the parched and barren lands of Asia and Africa. The 
Arabians live chiefly on the milk of their camels; and 
without them they could neither carry on trade, nor travel 
over their sandy deserts. 

lilaiua.— The Llama proper, and the Alpaca or Peruvian 
Sheep, which is entirely confined to Peru, are, according to 
Cuvier, only domesticated forms of the Guanaco, while 
Humboldt considers them as distinct species. The Llama 
is allied to the camel, from which it differs in the separation 
of its toes, in having claws, in being smaller in size, and 
having no hump. It is found in South America. 

Giraffe. — The Giraffe ok Camelopard, is a native of 
several parts of Africa, living in forests, and feeding on 
the leaves of trees. It has two straight horns, without 
branches, six inches long, covered with hair, truncated at 
the end, and tufted. The shoulders are of such a length 
as to render the fore part of the animal much higher than 
the hind part. The neck is very long, the head slender 
and elegant, and the color of the body is a dusky white, 
with large rusty spots. It is mild and inoffensive, and in 
case of danger has recourse to flight for safety, but when 
obliged to stand on self-defence, it kicks its adversary. 

llusk-Ox.— A ruminating animal intermediate between 
the sheep and ox. It inhabits the more northern parts of 
America. When they are fat, the flesh is well flavored, 
but smells strongly of musk. The Musk-Ox is about the 
height of a deer, but of much stouter proportions. The 
horns are very broad at the base, covering the forehead 



254: THE examiner's companion. 

and crown of the head; and curving downwards between 
the eye and ear, until about the level of the mouth, when they 
turn upwards. The color is brownish-black. When pur- 
sued by the hunter, they seek for safety by instant flight; 
but the bulls are sometimes dangerously irascible when 
closely pressed. The Musk-Ox runs nimbly, and climbs 
hills and rocks with great ease. 

Bison.— The Bison is the only bovine, except the 
Musk-Ox, indigenous to America. Having the distinctive 
hump on the fore-shoulders, it is a true Bison and not a 
Buffalo, as it is generally called. Originally ranging in 
immense herds over the most of the United States, it is 
now found only on the great plain between the Mississippi 
and the Rocky Mountains, and is fast becoming extinct. 
The old males sometimes weigh a ton, and though so 
cumbrous in appeai-ance, are very swift. 

Buffalo. — The Buffa.lo inhabits the Southern part of 
Asia, and is distinguished by its enormous horns. Their 
bases are of great strength, while their length exceeds 
four feet, with tips five feet .apart. In order to use even 
the tamest buffalo, a ring is put in its nose. The traveler 
over the Campagna of Rome often sees these wild-looking 
animals employed in agricultural labor. 

Yak. — The Yak, or Grunting Ox of Tartary, is about 
the size of an ordinary ox, which it much resembles in 
figure of body, head, and legs. It is covei'ed all over, 
however, with a thick coat of long, silky hair, hanging 
down like the fleece of a sheep. His white tail resembles 
that of a horse, and is much prized in the East, where it is 
used to brush away flies, and also as an emblem of authority. 
It makes a grunting noise, similar to that of a hog. It is 
domesticated in Thibet. 

Zebu. — The Zebu is the beast of burden for the Eastern 
coast of Africa, the Indian Archipelago, and Southern 
Asia. It is not a bison, though it has the distinctive hump, 
for the bison's consists of inuscles that move the head, 



ZOOLOGY. 255 

while the hump of the Zebu is composed of fat, which is 
valued for food. It is often called the Indian bull, ox, or 
cow, and is held to be sacred by the Hindoos. 

Chamois. — The Chamois is found only in high mount- 
tain regions of Western Europe. It is about the size 
of a goat, of a deep brown color, and its horns towards 
the summit are bent abruptly backward like a hook. 
Their sight, hearing, and smell are so acute, and they are 
so exceedingly shy, that it is only by the greatest patience 
and skill that the hunter can approach near enough to 
shoot them; they are likewise so swift, and leap with such 
vigor and sureness of foot, that to overtake them in a fair 
chase is next to impossible; — hence the Chamois hunters 
of the Alps are obliged to encounter the greatest perils in 
puriJUit of this favorite game. 

Moiintaiii Ciroat. — The Mountain Goat is found on 
the higher slopes of the Rocky Mountains. It has small, 
jet black, ringed horns, and long white hair. It ranks on a 
par with the Cashmere goat for the excellence of its fleece. 

Gazelle. — A beautiful and graceful antelope, about the 
size of the roebuck, with large, black horns, and of a fawn 
color above and white beneath, with a brown band along 
each flank. The beauty and brilliancy of the eye is its 
most remarkable feature. The Gazelle is found in N^-thern 
Africa, and has a swiftness so great that the greyhound 
cannot overtake it. 

Koodoo.— An ox-like antelope of South Africa, having 
graceful spiral horns. It is superior to any other antelope 
for size and height, and for bold and widely-spreading 
horns. The color of the back and sides is a light brown, 
with a narrow white band along the spine, and several 
similar stripes descending obliquely down the sides and 
hips; The belly and under parts being of a pale hue. The 
head is large, the ears broad, and the limbs thick and 
robust. It inhabits the woody parts of Caffraria, along the 
banks of the rivers; and when pursued takes to the water. 



256 THE examiner's companion. 

Onu.— A species of antelope which is one of the most 
extraordinary forms of life to be found among the 
Ruminantia, Its head and horns remind us of the Cape 
Buffalo; the body, mane, and tail resemble those of a hors6, 
and its feet are as light as those of a stag. It is a native 
of South Africa, where these animals feed in large herds. 

Oryx. — A long-horned and large species of antelope, 
inhabiting Asia, and Central and Southern Africa. It is as 
large as the stag, with straight, slender, round, and pointed 
horns, two or three feet long, with the lower third obliquely 
annulated. The Oryx is also called Gemsbock and Uni- 
corn. It is the only anteloije that defends itself against 
the lion; receiving its enemy on the point of its sharp 
horns, which serve as natural bayonets. 

Cashmere Goat. — The Cashmere Goat of ThU)et is 
the most celebrated of all the goat family for its fine wool. 
This goat is covered with long, silky hair, under which is 
a delicate gray wool, about three ounces of which are 
obtained from a single individual; and it is of this wool 
that the renowned Cashmere shawls are made. It is allied 
to the sheep, but is stronger, less timid, and more agile, 
and is useful, besides the purpose above-mentioned, for its 
milk and flesh, and for its skin. The male is noted for 
sala(;ity, and emits a strong stench. 

Ibex.— The Ibex, called also Stem-bok, inhabits the 
Northern mountains of Asia, and is also to be met with in 
the most precipitous and inaccessible parts of the Alps, 
the Pyrenees, and the Carpathians. It has extremely long 
horns, which bend backwards, are of a blackish color, and 
annulated on the surface. The body is of a dusky yellow- 
ish-brown color, and is less in proportion to the height 
than that of the common goat; it has, indeed, a great 
resemblance to the deer kind; the legs are also perfectly 
like those of the deer, straight, elegant, and slender. The 
hair is harsh, and the male is furnished with a black beard. 

Angora Goat,— The Angora Goat of Asia Minor, now 



ZOOLOGY. 257 

perfectly acclimatized in this country, is noted for furnish- 
ing the softest and most silky hair, which is largely man- 
ufactured by the inhabitants of Angora, no less than 
13,000,000 pounds of fabrics and yarns being exported by 
them annually. 

Mountain Sheep.— The Mountai^t Sheep, found wild 
on the Rocky Mountain slopes, differs from the Ibex in 
having a convex forehead, horns directed backward, then 
spirally forward, and two kinds of hair, one being crimped. 
It feeds on grassy knolls surrounded by craggy rocks, to 
which it retreats when attacked by wolves. Its horns 
sometimes grow so long and curve so far forward and 
downward that it can not graze on level ground. 

Prong-horn Antelope.— The Prong-horn Antelope, 
found in the Western parts of North America, is allied 
both to the Antelope and the Goat. It exceeds in size the 
common sheep, and has longer legs and a longer and more 
erect neck. The hair is very coarse and thick; the color 
above yellow-brown, the entire under parts and a square 
patch on the rump white. About half way up the horns 
on their interior face, there is a branch or prong, from 
which the animal gets its popular name. It is active and 
vigorous, though less enduring in its speed than most 
other antelopes. 

Deer. — The Deer Family, of which there are several 
species, have solid, deciduous horns, which are cast annu- 
ally, and at each renewal grow larger and more branching. 
Two cartilaginous prominences first appear on the fore- 
head. These ossify and form the horns, which are still 
covered with velvety skin. Soon a ring of bone gathers 
around the base of each horn, with passages for the arte- 
ries. These openings narrow, and gradually shut off the 
blood, that it may not by a sudden stoppage rush to the 
brain and produce apoplexy. The velvet, now deprived 
of its nourishment, soon withers and is rubbed off, leaving 
the white horn beneath. 
17 



258 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

Moose.— The Moose, once abundant in the Northern 
parts of North America, is now becoming extinct. It has 
a short, thick neck, with a mane, a long, horny muffle, 
and broad, slouching ears. The males have antlers, 
branched and broadly palmate. The American moose is 
Alces Afnericanus, and is the largest deer of America. It 
is found from the Northern part of the United States to 
the Arctic Ocean, and is distinct from, though resembling, 
the elk of Europe; — called also Moose-deer. 

Reindeer. — The Reindeer inhabits the Northern 
regions of Europe, Asia, and America. It varies a good 
deal in size and color, but in winter its coat is always 
white. It carries a pair of large antlers, which are shed 
annually. In America this animal is only known as a 
beast of chase, being hunted for food by the Indians and 
Esquimaux; but in Lapland and among the Ichukches, a 
people dwelling in the corner of Asia abutting on Behr- 
ing's Straits, the reindeer has been domesticated. It 
serves the Laplanders in place of horse, ox, and sheep, 
providing them with milk, cheese, flesh-meat, and clothing; 
whilst yoked to a sledge it draws its master over snow 
many miles in a day. Its chief food in the wild state is 
the lichen, called reindeer moss, which grows luxuriantly 
in cold regions. 

Wapiti.— The Wapiti, or American Elk, identical 
with the red deer or stag of Northern Europe, is a native 
of the northern and northwestern portions of the United 
States and northward to the 5Vth parallel. It is about the 
size of the horse. The color of the hair is red-brown, the 
tail very short, and the horns are round and erect, branch- 
ing in serpentine curves, measuring six feet from tip to 
tip, and weighing about 30 lbs. They live in small fami- 
lies of six to seven individuals, inhabiting clumps of 
wood, and feeding upon grass and the young shoots of 
willow and poplar trees, the hips of the wild rose, etc. 
The Wapiti is described as a stupid animal, and has a 



ZOOLOGY. 259 

peculiar voice not unlike the braying of an ass. The flesh 
is coarse and not much prized by the natives; but the hide, 
when made into leather, is said not to turn hard in drying 
after being wet, and therefore justly to excel that made 
from the moose or reindeer. 

Boebnck. — The Roebuck is the most light and hand- 
some of all the European deer. It is very small, weigh- 
ing only about sixty pounds, and inhabits the high mount- 
ains of the temperate parts of Europe, congregating in 
families. It also has erect cylindrical branched horns, forked 
at the summit, is of elegant shape and remarkably nimble. 

Virginia Deer. — The Virginia Deer is common in 
the United States. It differs in size according to locality, 
the Southern specimens being smaller. This deer is a 
great destroyer of rattlesnakes, cutting them to pieces by 
alighting upon them with all four feet. Its skin is tanned 
by the Indians by pounding in a solution of its own brains, 
and is known as "buckskin." Its antlers bend forward, with 
varying prongs. The males while fighting sometimes 
interlock their antlers, and unable to release themselves, 
perish miserably. The spotted young are called Fawns, 
and may be easily domesticated. The sagacity of the 
deer is shown in taking to the water when hunted with 
dogs, its greater height giving it a footing, while they, 
compelled to swim, are comparatively helpless. 

FalloM^ l>eer. — The Fallow Deer very much resem- 
bles the red deer, but is smaller and of more gentle dis- 
position. Originally a native of Persia, it was brought 
to Europe, where it is now found in most parts in a domes- 
ticated state. Its flesh (venison) is rich and delicate, and 
the skin is unrivaled for durability and softness. A large 
buck takes the lead of the herd, and suffers none but a 
few favorites to approach his regal presence. 

Mnsk-Deer. — A hornless deer, and one or two allied spe- 
cies, no larger than a calf, of a yellow or red-brown color, with 
two white stripes down the neck and breast. The male pro- 



260 THU examiner's companion. 

duces the substance known as musk, which it secretes in a 
kind of pouch. This animal is a native of Thibet and Nepaul . 

Hippopotamus.— The Hippopotamus of Africa is 
amphibious, with horizontally-projecting lower incisors 
and strong vertical canines. A greedy feeder, it sinks to 
the bed of the sluggish stream, where it can remain six or 
eight minutes, digs up a quantity of aquatic vegetation, 
rises to the top, and, washing the moss, devours it while 
leisurely floating on the surface. It is exactly fitted to 
dredge the rivers and keep open the channels, so apt to 
become filled with the luxuriant growth of that tropical 
region. Its hide is so thick that it is bullet-proof. There is 
only one living species, and that frequents the rivers of 
Africa. It is sometimes seen in salt water. The fossil re- 
mains of several extinct species have been found. 

Wild Boar.— The Wild Boar is the parent stock of 
all the varieties of the domestic hog. It has a short and 
thick body, straight ears, black bristly hair, and angular 
tusks which curve outwards and upwards. The young are 
striped black and white. When wounded, the wild boar 
is ferocious and formidable. These animals defend them- 
selves from the attacks of wild beasts by forming a circle, 
and showing a savage front to the enemy. They are indig- 
enous to Europe, Asia, and Africa, where in the wild 
regions they are still common. 

Peccary.— The Peccary of the New World represents 
the Wild Boar of the Old. There are but two species, the 
collared and the white-lipped — the former living in families. 
The whole company of twenty or more are accustomed to 
back singly into a hollow log to sleep, the last one acting 
as a sentinel. This one being shot, the others successively 
take its place, so that, if skillfully managed by the hunter, 
the whole number may be captured. The white-lipped live 
in herds, which stretch out for miles in their destructive 
migrations. They resemble pigs, but have slender tusKS 
capable of inflicting terrible wounds. 



ZOOLOGY. 261 

Horse.— A hoofed quadruped of the genus Equus [E. 
calaUus), having one toe to each foot, a mane, and a long, 
flowing tail. It is exclusively herbivorous, having six 
broad grinding teeth on each side of each jaw; and six 
incisors and two canine teeth both above and below. The 
mares have the canines rudimentary, or entirely wanting. 
It has all four legs furnished with warts or castors, which 
distinguishes it from the ass. It is supposed to be 
originally a native of Central Asia. The horse excels in 
strength, speed, docility, courage, and nobleness of char- 
acter, and is used for drawing, carrying, bearing a rider, 
and like purposes. 

Ass. — A well-known animal remarkable for its hardi- 
hood and length of life. It is said to be a descendant of 
the wild ass, inhabiting the mountainous deserts of Tar- 
tary, etc., celebrated in history for the fiery activity of its 
disposition, and the fleetness of its course. Its charac- 
teristics are a long head, long ears, a round body covered 
with a short and coarse fur, of a pale dun color, with a 
streak of black running down its back and across the 
shoulders, and a tail not hairy all the way, as in a horse, 
but only at the end. The best breed of asses is that 
originally derived from the hot and dry regions of Asia; 
but the best to be met with in Europe are the Spanish. It is 
common in European cities to see these animals driven every 
morning to the door of the sick to be milked for their use. 

Zebra.— The Eqims Zebra is an animal of the horse 
family, and a native of South Africa. It is beautifully 
marked with stripes, has a short mane, erect ears, and tail 
like an ass. It is about the size of a mule, and is wild, 
swift and vicious. The Equus Burchelli, another South 
African striped species, is still more related to the horse 
than the last. The Zebra is one of the most elegant of quad- 
rupeds, but nearly all attempts to domesticate it have failed. 

Rhinoceros.— A pachydermatous mammal, nearly allied 
to the elephant, the hippopotamus, the tapir, etc, and char- 



262 THE examiner's companion. 

acterized by having one or two very strong horns upon the 
nose. It is of great size, and very powerful. The prin- 
cipal species are the Indian rhinoceros {Rhinoceros Indicus, 
or Rhinoceros Unicornis)^ having but one horn, and the 
Afi'ican rhinoceros {Rhinoceros bicornis, or Rhinoceros 
Africanns), which has two horns. Its skin is in some parts 
so thick that it is scarcely penetrable by the sharpest sabre or 
even a musket-ball. The Rhinoceros delights in retired 
places near lakes and streams, and appears to derive one of 
his greatest pleasures from rolling in the mud. 

Hyrax.— The Damans, a curious genus of small pachy- 
dermatous animals, family Rhinoceridce, inhabiting rocky 
and mountainous districts in Africa and Syria. They are 
of the size of a rabbit, and Cuvier calls them rhinoceroses 
in miniature without the horn. The Syrian Daman, Hyrax 
Syriacus, which is common in Syria, Arabia, and Abyssinia, 
is doubtless the Cony or Coney of the Scriptures. 

Tapir.— A pachydermatous animal, family Rhinoceri- 
dae, having a bulky form, with moderately long legs; the 
fore-feet four-toed, the hind-feet three-toed; the skin thick, 
the hair short; the tail very small; the neck thick; the ears 
short; the eyes small; the muzzle elongated; the nose pro- 
longed into a short, flexiJble proboscis, which, however, 
does not terminate in an organ of touch and prehension, 
like that of the elephant. The Tapir of South America is 
about the size of an ass, skin brown and nearly naked, and 
the neck fleshy, forming a sort of crest on the nape. The 
Indian Tapir of Sumatra, is larger than the American species. 

Elephant.— The Elephant is the largest of living 
quadrupeds, attaining eight to ten feet in height and 10,- 
000 pounds in weight. It roams the forest in herds of 
twenty or more, and is supposed to live over one hundred 
years. Unlike the horse, it has the metacarpal bones 
shortened, so that the heel is brought near the ground. 
The nose is lengthened into a proboscis or trunk contain- 
ing several thousand muscles, which permit every conceiv- 



ZOOLOGY. 263 

able motion; while a mobile lip at the end is delicate 
enough to pick up a grain of wheat. Water is also drawn 
into the trunk by suction, and then, the end being inserted 
into the mouth, discharged down the throat. The Asiatic 
species is alone tamed at the present day. It has a con- 
cave forehead, small eai's, and the enamel of the teeth 
arranged in transverse bands. The African species has a 
convex forehead, enormous ears, and the enamel of the 
teeth lozenge-shaped. Both sexes have tusks, the male's 
often being eight feet long and weighing a hundred pounds. 

Manatee.— The Manatee, or Sea Cow of the Florida 
coast, has, like the elephant, a short neck, dense bones, and 
the nostril in the end of the snout. It has no hind limbs, 
and its fore limbs are flippers, with vestiges of nails on the 
edges, enabling it to crawl on the shore. It feeds upon 
aquatic plants, whence it is styled an "herbivorous whale." 
Another species is found on the opposite shores of Africa; 
also one in the Indian Ocean. It is used for food, and 
hunted for its fat. 

Vampire,— The Vampibe of South America has, instead 
of a stomach, a long pouch for the reception of its food, 
which requires little digestion. Its teeth make a triple 
puncture, through which it sucks the blood of its victim 
till gorged. The bite, however, is rarely serious. Most 
exaggerated stories have been reported by travelers, as 
that the Vampire, winging its silent flight in the darkness, 
poises itself over the exposed toe of an incautious sleeper, 
and painlessly extracts his life-blood, all the while by gentle 
fanning inducing a deeper slumber, until its victim expires. 

Bat.— A class, or one of a class, of true quadrupeds or 
mammals having a kind of wings made by the extension of 
the fingers to support a membranous expansion which 
stretches from the side of the neck, by the toes, to the tail. 
The smaller species have a skin like a mouse, which they 
much resemble but for their wings. The bats are called 
cheiroptersj there are two groups; the first. Carnivorous^ 



264 THE examiner's companion. 

or Insectivorous, comprises the vampire and the cotntnon 
bats, including all the American; the second are the Frvr 
givorous or fruit-eating, and belong to tropical Asia. 

Mole. — A small insect-eating mammal, with minute eyes 
and very soft fur, belonging to the genera Talpa, Scalops, 
etc. The common mole of Europe is the Talpa EuropoBa; 
that of North America is /Scalops aquaticus; the star-nosed 
mole is the Condylura cristana. From its burrowing hab- 
its it is called a mold-ioarp or mold-turner. The name is 
also applied, in North America, to the shrew, a small bur- 
rowing animal of the genus Sorex. 

Hedge-Hog,— The Hedge-Hog is not found in America. 
Mingled with its hair are prickly spines (quills) pinned 
through the skin from the inside, and retained by the head. 
They are so bent that when the animal rolls itself into a 
ball, they project in every direction — a cheval-de-frise 
which baffles the dog and the fox. If a pool is near, how- 
ever, the latter will sometimes tumble the curled-up hedge- 
hog into the water; when the frightened animal, unrolling 
itself for an instant, will be caught by its crafty enemy 
before it can close up again. 

Monse. — A small rodent quadruped (the Miismusculus)^ 
inhabiting houses. The name is also applied to many 
other allied species, as the field-mouse, meadow-mouse, rock- 
mouse, jumping-mouse, deer-mouse, and the like. Jumping 
Mice are remarkable for their cheek-pouches and long, zig- 
zag leaps. There is but a single species in North America. 
The Meadow-Mouse is noticeable for the winding, shallow 
paths it traces among the grass leading to its nest. The 
Deer Mouse dwells in the woods and fields in summer, 
and in granaries in winter. 

Mnsk-Rat.— A rodent animal, of the genus Ondatra, 
which includes but one species, allied to the beaver, but 
about the size of a cat, having a strong, musky smell. It 
is a native of North America. Its popular name in Amer- 
ica is musquash, the Indian name. The color of its body 



ZOOLOGY. 265 

is a reddish-brown, the belly and breast of an ash color. 
The hair is soft and glossy, and beneath is a thick coat, 
which was once in great demand for hats, but is now 
chiefly used for cheap furs. 

Ponched Gopher. — The Pouched Gopher family, 
comprising Rodents which have large and distinct external 
cheek-pouches, pelage composed of stiff hairs with no 
under fur, and the upper lips not cleft. The Pouched 
Gopher, Pocket Gopher, or Pouched Reat of the North- 
western States, is eight to ten inches long to the tail, which 
is one to two inches; the color reddish-brown above, paler 
beneath, with a plumbeous tinge along the vertebral region. 
Its cheek-pouches are very large, extending as far back as the 
shoulders, and lined with short hair, and, as in other mem- 
bers of this family, are used mainly or wholly to convey 
food into the. burrows, to be stored up or eaten at leisure. 

Beaver. — The Beaver was once abundant in North 
America, but it retires before civilization, and is fast 
becoming extinct in this country as in Europe. Its scaly 
tail and M^ebbed hind feet enable it to swim with great 
ease. The enamel of its incisors is very hard. The 
Indians, before the introduction of iron among them, were 
accustomed to use beaver's incisors as chisels for working 
wood and horn. A tame beaver will take an apple in its fore- 
paws, and by dextrously turning and pressing it against its in- 
cisors, pare it as readily as if the work had been done with a 
knife. It is noted for its ingenuity in building its habitations. 

Sqoirrel.— The genus Sciurus, the true Squirrels, is 
characterized by the lower incisors being compressed, and 
the tail long and bushy. From this latter member being 
turned over its back when the animal is in a state of rest, 
the genus has derived its scientific name. They are active 
animals, ascending the trees with facility. Their beauty 
and extreme neatness, combined with their light and 
graceful motions, have made them general favorites. The 
Gray and the Black Squirrel of the United States east of 



266 THE examiner's COMPANION, 

the Mississippi is nine to eleven inches long to the tail, which 
is about one inch longer than the head and body. The genus 
Tamias, the Striped Squirrels, characterized by ample 
cheek-pouches, tail not bushy, and three to five dark dorsal 
stripes, is, among other si)ecies, represented in North 
America by the Chipping or Chipmunk, T. Striatus, of 
Canada to Virginia, which is five to six inches to the tail, 

Prairie-Dog.— The Prairie-Dog of the Mississippi 
region, is about the size of a Fox Squirrel, but heavier, 
having much the appearance of a miniature woodchuck. 
Its color is reddish-brown above, and brownish-yellow 
below. These animals utter a sharp chirp, which is called 
barking; hence their name. They live in burrows, and 
large numbers are often found in the same locality, form- 
ing communities which the hunters call "dog-towns." 
Rattlesnakes and burrowing owls are often found sharing its 
home, being tolerated by the rightful owner from necessity. 

Forcnpine. — A rodent quadruped of the genns ITt/strix 
of Linnffius, furnished with spines or quills upon the 
body, covered with sharp prickles, some of which are 
twelve inches long, and capable of being erected at pleas- 
ure. When attacked, he rolls his body into a round form, 
in which position the prickles are presented in every direc- 
tion to the enemy. This species is a native of Africa and 
Asia, and is also found in Italy, 

<Griiinea-Pig.--A small Brazilian rodent. It is about 
seven inches in length, and of a white color, with spots of 
orange and black. It is domesticated in all parts of the 
world. Though exceedingly quarrelsome with its fellows, 
it is gentle toward other animals. 

Hare. — A rodent of the genus Ijepus, having long hind 
legs, a short tail, and a divided upper lip. It is a timid 
animal, moves swiftly by leaps, and is remarkable for its 
fecundity. The Hare generally lies concealed during the 
day, and ventures forth only at night, seeking its food of 
grass, roots and tender buds. In Europe they are hunted 



ZOOLOGY. 267 

with dogs, the greyhound being kept almost exchisively 
for their pursuit. 

Aiit-Eaters.— The Ant-Eaters family is character- 
ized by a long muzzle, toothless mouth, filiform tongue 
capable of great extension, and used to penetrate ant- 
hills and nests of termites, whence the insects are with- 
drawn, being entangled in the viscid saliva which covers 
it. The body is covered with much hair, and the claws of 
the fore-feet are strong and trenchant, and suited to tear- 
ing open ant-nests. These animals inhabit the warm and 
hot parts of South America. Though the animal is only 
four or five feet long, it is said that the threadlike tongue 
can be thrust out to a distance of two feet and as often as 
twice per second. 

S$loth. — The Sloth, of which there are two varieties — 
the two-toed and the three-toed — is peculiar to South 
America. The latter species, called the Ai, from its cry, 
lives on the under side of the branches of trees, even 
sleeping suspended, back downward. Clinging to a limb 
with its short hind legs, it draws in other boughs with its 
long fore legs, in order to strip off the leaves for food. 
In avoiding pursuit they spring from tree to tree with 
great rapidity, particularly in a gale of wind when the 
branches are swaying toward one another. Their flesh is 
good eating and they need all their agility to escape their 
numerous enemies. 

Armadillo. — An edentate animal, of which there are sev- 
eral species, all inhabiting South America. They are' covered 
with a bony case, and most of the species have long tails 
similarly protected. They are burrowing animals, with 
nocturnal habits, feeding chiefly on vegetables. Their flesh 
affords excellent food. The nine-banded Armadillo, of 
Texas to Paraguay, is 18 inches long to the tail. The 
Armadillos are the true scavengers of the plains, speedily 
devouring the carcasses of wild animals, and especially of 
such as have been slaughtered merely for their hides. 



268 THE examiner's companion. 

Kangaroo.— A family of Australian Marsupials, whose 
limbs are strangely disproportioned, the fore-legs being 
small and short, whilst the hinder are long and powerful. 
The largest species, is four or five feet in length, with a 
tail three feet; its usual position is standing on its hind 
feet, its fore-feet being employed like a pair of hands. It 
lives on vegetables, and, instead of walking, takes leaps 
of about fifteen feet. It is furnished, like the opossum, 
with a pouch-in the abdomen, which is a receptacle for its 
young, and is resorted to after they become strong for the 
sake of warmth and protection. They use their tails and 
hinder feet as weapons of defence. The flesh of these 
animals is said to be nutritious and savory, somewhat 
resembling mutton. 

Opossum.— The Opossum belongs to this Continent, 
but of the thirty species, only one is found in North Amer- 
ica. The common variety is about the size of a cat, with a 
pointed head, large, naked ears; sharp teeth; rough tongue; 
long, prehensile tail; and curved claws. It is mostly noc- 
turnal and arboreal, and both herbivorous and carnivorous, 

Shrew-Mole.— The common Shrew-Mole of the United 
States, which inhabits both dry and wet lands, is about 
four to five inches long, and, in search of worms and other 
insects, forms a road just under the surface of the earth, 
raising the soil into a little ridge. Its conformation ena- 
ables him to burrow with great ease, and such rapidity 
that its passage through the earth has been compared to 
swimming. It has no external ear, and its eyes are so 
minute, and so concealed by its fur, as to have given rise 
to a belief that it is formed without those important organs. 

Alligator.— A large carnivorous amphibious reptile of 
the Saurian family peculiar to America. The name was 
first given to this animal by the English colonists of the 
southern portion of what are now the United States, but 
has been gradually extended to all the varieties of the 
family, called caymans, crocodiles, jacares, etc., by the 



ZOOLOGY. 269 

Spaniard, Portuguese, and Indians of the southern conti- 
nent. The alligator was formerly believed to be identical 
with the crocodile of the Old World; but there have sub- 
sequently been found to exist distinctions which indicate 
generic differences. 

Chameleon.— The Chameleon is confined to the Old 
World. It leads a double life. It may be asleep on one 
side and awake on the other. One eye can watch an insect 
crawling in the rear, and the other in front. When agitated, 
each half of its body wishing to go its own way, the ani- 
mal tumbles about as if intoxicated. In a cool, dark place 
it is nearly white, or grayish; on admitting the light, it 
changes to brown, bottle-green, or blood-red, of various 
shades, and more or less mottled in arrangement. Its long, 
gummy tongue is quick enough to catch a fly buzzing past, 
at the distance of twice the length of the Chameleon's body. 

Horned-Toad.— A lizard so called from somewhat 
resembling a frog in its general aspect. All the species 
are in North America, and characterized by a more or less 
circular or oval body, flattened and covered with tubercu- 
lated scales; head short, triangular, with prominent vertex, 
and sharp spines, or roughness; neck very short, and with 
transverse folds underneath; tail short and conical. The 
species are found in the S. W. States, California, Oregon, 
etc. The best known species is about four and one-half 
inches long; the general color above is a dusky gray, with 
blackballs and markings; below, silvery white. It passes 
the winter in a state of lethargy in holes dug by various 
rodents. 

liizard. — The true Lizards, a family of Saurians, none 
of which attain a large size, while most of them are small, 
active, brilliantly colored, and bright-eyed creatures, loving 
warmth and sunshine, abounding chiefly in the warmer 
parts of the Old World. They have a long, extensile, 
forked tongue; the body is generally long, and terminates 
in a rather long tail; the feet have each five toes, furnished 



270 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

with claws; the upper parts are covered with small imbri- 
cated scales; the laminae of the under parts are larger; a 
collar of broad scales surrounds the neck; the bones of 
the skull advance over the temples and orbits; the back 
part of the palate is armed with two rows of teeth. They 
feed chiefly on insects. Lizards become torpid in winter. 
They are remarkable for the readiness with which the end 
of the tail breaks off; the flinging of a glove or handker- 
chief on one when it is trying to make its escape, is often 
enough to cause the separation of this portion, which lies 
wriggling, while the animal hastens away. The lost 
portion is afterwards reproduced. The genus Lacerta 
contains the Monitor, X. iW/o^iCff, of the Nile, which is 
five or six feet long, and is said to destroy the eggs of the 
crocodile. It is sculptured on the ancient Egyptian 
monuments. 



««CHEMISTRY.i» 





QUESTIONS. 



1. Define chemistry. 

2. What is the distinction between organic and inor- 
ganic chemistry? 

3. What is an element? 

4. Define chemical aflinity. 

5. How can we find what elements will combine? 

6. What is said of compounds? 

7. What is the action of heat and light? 

8. What is said of the former, especially? 

9. Mention some examples. 

10. What is the action of solution? 

11. State the principles upon which the elements are 
named. 

12. What is said of the uniform termination tmxJ 

13. What are chemical symbols? 

14. Mention some examj)les. 

15. Define atomic weight. 

16. State the four laws of the atomic theory. 

17. What is a binary compound? 

18. What is said about writing the name and reading 
the symbol? 



(271) 



272 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

19. Define the different compounds of O. 

20. What is an acid? 

21. Mention an example. 

22. How are the hydracids named? 

23. Define a base. 

24. Define an alkali. 

25. What is the distinguishing trait of bases and acids? 

26. Define a salt. 

27. The salts of sulphuric and sulphurous acid are 
called what? 

28. What is a formula? 

29. What is said of the mathematics of chemistry? 

30. Give the symbol and atomic weight of oxygen. 

31. What is the meaning of oxygen? 

32. Name the sources of oxygen. 

33. Name the properties of oxygen. 

34. Describe the destructive effects of the O in the air. 

35. What causes the decay of peaches? 

36. What is said regarding the treatment of a burn 
and cut? 

37. How is river- water purified on a sea-voyage? 

38. What is ozone? 

39. What are its properties? 

40. What is antozone? 

41. What is its characteristic? 

42. Give the symbol and atomic weight of nitrogen. 

43. Name the sources of nitrogen. 

44. Mention the symbol and atomic weight of hydrogen, 

45. What are the properties of hydrogen? 

46. Why does the blacksmith sprinkle water on his 
forge fire? 

47. What IS said of water in the animal world? 

48. What is said of water in the vegetable world? 

49. What is said of water in the mineral world? 

50. What is the symbol and atomic weight of carbon? 

51. Illustrate the abundance of carbon. 



CHEMISTRY QUESTIONS. 273 

52. In how many forms do we find carbon? 

53. How is charcoal made? 

54. "What is coke? 

55. Describe the formation of peat. 

56. What is muck? 

57. Define combustion. 

58. Give illustrations of spontaneous combustion. 

59. Name the constituents of the atmosphere. 

60. How may a clear idea of the pi'oportion of these 
several constituents be formed? 

61. The atmosphere would then be how high? 

62. In this arrangement of gases how have we sup- 
posed them to be placed? 

63. Name the halogens, their symbols, and atomic 
weight. 

64. What compounds do the halogens form? 

65. Why is chlorine so called? 

66. Tell what you can about bromine. 

67. What is the peculiarity of fluorine? 

68. Why is iodine so called? 

69. State what is said of boron. 

70. State what is said of borax. 

71. What is this salt employed in? 

72. What is said of silicon? 

73. What are the properties of silicon? 

74. Explain the process of petrifaction. 

75. Name the symbol and atomic weight of sulphur. 

76. What are the sources of sulphur? 

77. What else is sulphur contained in? 

78. What is said of sulphuric acid? 

79. What is said of phosphorus? 

80. What are its sources? 

81. What is phosphorus principally used for? 

82. How is the Safety Match made? 

83. What is phosphorescence? 

84. What is said about arsenic? 
18 



274: THE examiner's COMPANION. 

85. What are the properties of arsenic? 

86. What is said of potassium? 

87. What are the properties of potassium? 

88. Tell what you can about sodium. 

89. What can you say of ammonium? 

90. What can you say of calcium? 

91. What is said of the metals strontium and hariutnf 

92. State what you can about magnesium. 

93. To what use is the light put? 

94. What is said regarding magnesium lanterns? 
96. What is said of aluminum? 

96. What is said of its sound and weight? 

97. Tell what you can about iron. 

98. Which could we better dispense with, gold and 
silver, or iron? 

99. What is said of the abundance of iron? 

100. Name the sources of iron. 

101. Tell what you can about zinc. 

102. What are the properties of zinc? 

103. What is said about tin? 

104. What are its properties? 

105. Tell what is said about copper. 

106. What are the properties of copper? 

107. What is the symbol and atomic weight of lead? 

108. What are the properties of lead? 

109. What is sugar of lead? 

110. What are the sources of gold? 

111. What is the symbol of gold? Atomic weight? 

112. What is the preparation of gold. 

113. What is the use of quartz-mills '■* 

114. What then unites together? 

115. What are the properties of gold? 

116. What are the sources of silver? 

117. What is the preparation of silver — from the 
sulphide? 

118. What IS the preparation of silver — from lead? 



CHEMISTRY QUESTIONS. 275 

119. What are the properties of silver? 

120. What is the source of platinum? 

121. What is the preparation of platinum? 

122. What are the properties of platinum? 

123. What is said of mercury? 

124. What is the source of mercury? 

125. Where is Hg found in its native state? 

126. What is said of the preparation of mercury? 

127. What are the properties of mercury? 

128. What ai'e the uses of mercury? 

129. What is said of the action of Hg on the human 
system? 

130. What can you say of the alloys? 

131. Of what is type-metal made? Pewter? Britannia? 

132. Of what is brass made? German silver? Soft 
solder? Hard solder? 

133. What is said of fusible metal? Bronze? Oreide? 

134. What is said of gold? Silver? Copper? Alumi- 
num bronze? 

135. What can you say of the precious metals, when 
pure ? 

136. What are the constituents of gold coin? 
13V. What are the constituents of silver coin? 

138. What is the meaning of the term carat? 

139. How are shot manufactured? 

140. How are shot sorted? 



««CFIEMISTKY.»» 





1. Chemistry treats of the composition of bodies and 
the specific properties of matter. — Examples: water con- 
sists of two gases, hydrogen and oxygen; gold is yellow. 

2. Organic chemistry deals with those substances which 
have been produced by life. — Exam2)les: flesh and wood. 
Inorganic chemistry is confined to those which have not 
been formed by life. — Examjyles : sand, glass, metals. 

3. An element is a kind of matter which has never 
been separated into other substances. — Examples: gold, 
iron. Sixty-four elements are now known (possibly more 
may be found in the future), fifty-one of which are con- 
sidered to be metals and thirteen non-metals. 

4. Chemical affinity is that force which causes the ele- 
ments of matter to unite and form new compounds. It 
acts at distances so slight as to be insensible, and upon the 
most dissimilar substances; the more dissimilar, the 
stronger the union. Example: a little jDotassium chlorate 
of potash and sulphur mixed in a mortar will not combine, 
but a slight pressure of the pestle will bring them within 
the range of attraction, when they will burn with a loud 
explosion. 

(276) 



CHEMISTRY ANSWERS. 277 

5, Nothing in the nature or appearance of an element 
indicates its chemical affinity, and it is only by trial that 
we can tell with what it will combine. This attraction is 
not a mere freak of nature, but a force imparted to matter 
by God himself for wise and beneficent purposes. 

6. Compounds, in their properties, are in general very 
unlike their elements. — Examples: yellow sulphur and 
white quicksilver form red vermilion; inert charcoal, 
hydrogen, and nitrogen produce the deadly prussic acid; 
solid charcoal and sulphur make a colorless liqiaid; poison- 
ous and offensive chlorine combines with the brilliant 
metal sodium to form common salt. 

Y. Heat and light favor chemical action, and frequently 
develop an affinity where it seemed to be wanting. 

8. The former especially, by its expansive force,. tends 
to drive the elements of a compound without the range of 
old attractions and within that of new ones. 

9. Gun-cotton, when lying in the air, is apparently 
harmless, but a spark of fire will produce a brilliant flash, and 
cause it to disappear as a gas: nitrate of silver in contact 
with organic matter turns black, by the action of the light. 

10. Solution also aids in chemical change, as it destroys 
cohesion and leaves the atoms free to unite. — Example: 
sodium carbonate of soda and tartaric acid mixed in a 
glass will not combine, but the addition of water will cause 
a violent effervescence. 

11. The elements which were known anciently retain 
their former names. Those discovered more recently are 
named from some peculiarity. — Exam2)les: chlorine, from 
its green color; bromine, from its bad odor. 

12. The uniform termination icm has been given to the 
lately found metals. — Examples: potassium, sodium. A 
similarity of ending in non-metallic elements indicates 
some analogy. — Exam,ples: silicon, boron; iodine, bromine. 

13. For the sake of brevity, chemists use a kind of 
short-hand. The first letter of its English name is gener- 



278 Tii"K examiner's companion. 

ally taken as the symbol of an element. When that 
would produce confusion, the Latin initial is substituted, 
and in some cases a second letter added. 

14. Carbon and chlorine both commence with C; so 
the latter takes CI for its symbol. Silver and silicon both 
begin with Si, hence the former assumes Ag, from its 
Latin name, Argentum. If more than one atom of an ele- 
ment be used in forming a molecule of a compound, this 
is shown by writing the number below the symbol. — 
Mxample: H^O indicates that in a molecule of water there 
are two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen. 

15. The atomic weight of an element expresses the 
proportion by weight in which it unites with other ele- 
ments. There is no chance-work in nature. No matter 
under what circumstances a compound is formed, the pro- 
portion of its elements is the same. — Example: the car- 
bonic acid produced amid the roar of a conflagration or 
the explosion of a volcano is identical with that made in 
the quiet burning of a match. 

16. The atomic theory which lies at the basis of chem- 
istry, as now understood, supposes: 1. That each element 
is composed of indivisible atoms which are exactly equal 
in size and weight. 2. That the atomic weights represent 
therelativeweightsof the atoms of various kinds. 3. That 
compounds are formed by the union of atoms of different 
kinds in the proportion of their atomic weights or multi- 
ples of them. 4. That the molecular weight of a compound 
is equal to the sum of the atomic v/eights of its elements. 

17. A binary compound is a union of two elements. 
In writing its symbol, we place first that of the electro- 
positive, and then that of the electro-negative element. 

18. In writing the name, or in reading the symbol, the 
latter element takes the termination ide. Thus, potassium 
and iodine form the compound which is written KI, and 
read potassium iodide; sodium and chlorine, NaCl, sodium 
chloride; zinc and oxygen, ZnO, zinc oxide. 



CHEMISTRY ANSWERS. 279 

19. One atom of in a molecule forms the monoxide 
or protoxide, two the dioxide or binoxide, three of O and 
two of the other element, the sesquioxide (meaning 1^), 
and the highest number, the peroxide, 

20. The acids are generally sour, and turn vegetable 
colors — such as the infusion of blue litmus, or of purple 
cabbage — to a bright red. They are named from the ele- 
ments with which O combines. The termination indicates 
the amount of O, — ic representing the greater, and ows the 
lesser. 

21. Sulphur forms two acids of different strength — 
sulphuric, the stronger, and sulphurous, the weaker. If an 
acid has been afterwards found containing more O than 
the stronger, it takes the prefix per' one having less than 
the weaker, the prefix Ay/>o, — Example : chlorine combines 
with oxygen and hydrogen to form a series of acids in 
regular gradation, 

22. Hydrogen by its union with different elements 
forms acids which contain no O, These combine the names 
of both elements. — Example: Hydrogen and chlorine 
form hydrochloric acid, 

23. The bases are commonly oxides of the metals. 
Their termination, as in the acids, indicates the amount of 
oxygen. Thus mercury has two oxides, HgO and HgjO, 
termed respectively mercuric oxide and mercurous oxide; 
iron forms FeO, ferrous, and Fe^O^, ferric oxide. 

24. The alkalies are bases which are soluble in water, 
have a soapy taste and feel, turn red litmus to blue, and 
red-cabbage solution to green, neutralize the acids and 
restore the colors changed by them. 

25. The property which the acids and bases thus have 
of uniting with each other and destroying the chemical 
activity which either possesses alone, is their distinguish- 
ing trait. 

26. The salts are compounds formed by the union of 
an acid and a base. In naming a salt, the termination of 



280 THE examiner's companion. 

the acid is changed — an ic acid forming an ate compound, 
and an ous acid an ite compound. 

27. The salts of sulphuric acid are called sulphates, and 
of sulphurous acid, sulphites; of nitric acid, nitrates^ and 
of nitrous acid, nitrites. Sulphuric acid combining with 
ferrous oxide forms ferrous sulphate, and with ferric 
oxide, ferric sulphate. 

28. A formula is an algebraic statement of the symbols 
and relations of several compounds. The sign + indicates 
a feeble attraction or a mere mixture. The sign = indicates 
conversion into. The comma or the period denotes a combi- 
nation. The brackets and coefficients are used as in algebra. 

29. There is a Divine law of harmony which runs like 
a golden thread through all nature, giving always unity and 
completeness. Its beauty and simplicity are nowhere seen 
more clearly than in the law of atomic weights. Applying 
the fourth principle of the atomic theory, already referred 
to, we see that the atomic weight of any element in a 
compound, divided by the molecular weight of that com- 
pound, is the proportion of that element contained in it. — 
Example: the molecular weight of water,H 2 O, is2-|-16 = 18; 
hence the proportion of H is ^\ or \, and of O, \^ or ^. 
In 10 lbs. of H^O, there are therefore lOxf or 8f lbs. of 
O, and 10 xi or l-i- lbs. of H. 

30. The symbol of oxygen is O. Atomic weight, 16. 

31. The name oxygen means acid-former, and was 
given because it was supposed to be the essential principle 
of all acids; but hydrogen has since been found to be the 
true acid-maker. 

32. Oxygen is the most abundant of all the elements — 
comprising by weight \ of the air, f of the water, | of all 
animal bodies, and about \ of the crust of the earth. 

33. Oxygen has no odor, color, or taste. It combines 
with every element except fluorine. From some of its 
compounds it can be set free by the stroke of a hammer, 
while from others it can be liberated only by the most 



CHEMISTRY ANSWERS. 281 

powerful means. Its union with a substance is called 
oxidation, and the product an oxide. It is a vigorous sup- 
porter of combustion. 

34. Oxygen is the active principle of the atmosphere. 
Comprising one-fifth of the common air, it is ever-present, 
and ever-waiting. 

35. We gather a basket of peaches and set them aside. 
In a short time black spots appear, and we say they 
are decaying. It is only the O corroding them, i. e., 
breaking up their chemical structure to form new and un- 
pleasant compounds. To prevent this action, we place the 
fruit in a can, heat it to expel the O, and seal it tightly. 

36. The treatment of a burn as well as a cut consists in 
the immediate exclusion of the air. It is a mistake to 
suppose that a salve will " draw out the fire " of a burn, 
or heal a bruise or cut. The vital force must unite the 
divided tissue by the deposit of material, and the formation 
of new cells. 

37. As the vessel sets sail from London, the captain 
fills the water casks with water from the River Thames, 
foul with the sewage of the city, and containing twenty- 
three different species of animalcules; yet, in a few days, 
the O contained in the air dissolved by the HgO, will have 
cleansed it, and the H^O will be found sweet and whole- 
some during the voyage. 

38. Ozone is an allotropic form, of O- — ^. e., a form in 
which the element itself is so changed as to have new 
properties. It is always perceived during the working of 
an electric machine, and is then called "the electric smell." 
It has also been detected near objects just struck by light- 
ning. Electricity is supposed to have something to do 
with the formation of the ozone in the atmosphere. 

39. Ozone is still more corrosive than oxygen. It 
bleaches powerfully, and is a rapid disinfectant. A piece 
of tainted meat plunged into a jar of it is instantly deodor- 
ized, and it is probable that, even in minute quantities, this 



282 THE examiner\s companion. 

gas exercises a powerful influence in purifying the atmos- 
phere. Its over- abundance in the air is supposed to produce 
influenzas, diseases of the lungs, etc., and its absence to 
cause fevers, agues, and kindred diseases. 

40. Antozone (the opposite of ozone,) is always formed 
at the same time as ozone, but returns to ordinary O more 
readily. 

41. Its distinguishing trait is its tendency to form 
clouds with O. We ^notice it in the oxidation of phos- 
phorus, as a white mist which remains long after the phos- 
phorus oxides have been dissolved by the HgO. The 
gray smoke that lingers around chimneys, steam-engines, 
etc., is composed of antozone. 

42. The symbol of nitrogen is N. Atomic weight, 14. 
This gas is called nitrogen because it exists in nitre. 

43. Nitrogen forms ^ of the atmosphere, and is found 
abundantly in ammonia, nitric acid, flesh, and in such veg- 
etables as the mushroom, cabbage, horse-radish, etc. It is 
an essential constituent of the valuable medicines, quinine 
and morphine, and of the potent poisons, pi'ussic acid and 
strychnine. 

44. The symbol of hydrogen is H. Atomic weight, 1. 
Hydrogen means literally a generator of water. 

45. When pure, hydrogen is like O, colorless, trans- 
parent, and odorless. It has the greatest diffusive power 
of any element; and in attempts made to liquify the gas, 
it leaked through the pores of the thick iron cylinders in 
which it was compressed. It is the lightest of all bodies, 
being only ji^ as heavy as common air. It is not poison- 
ous, although, like N, it will destroy life or combustion 
by shutting out the life-sustainer, O. When inhaled, it 
gives the voice a ludicrously shrill tone. It can be 
breathed for a few moments with impunity, if it be first 
passed through lime-water to purify it. Owing to its light- 
ness, it passes out of the lungs again directly. Its levity 
suggested its use for filling balloons, and it has been 



CHEMISTRY ANSWERS. 283 

employed for that purpose; but coal gas, which contains 
much H, and is cheaper, is now preferred. 

46. The blacksmith decomposes water when he sprinkles 
it on the hot coals in his forge. The H burns with a pale 
flame, while the O increases the combustion. Thus, in a 
fire, if the engines throw on too little water, it may be 
decomposed, and add to the fury of the flame. To " set 
the North River on fire,'' is only a poetical exaggeration. 

47. The abundance of water very forcibly attracts the 
attention. It composes perhaps ^ of our flesh and blood. 
Man has been facetiously described as 12 lbs. of solid 
matter wet up in six pails of water. All plumpness of 
flesh, and fairness of the cheek, are given by the juices of 
the system. A few ounces of water and a little charcoal 
constitute the principal chemical difference between the 
round, rosy face of sixteen, and the wrinkled, withered 
features of three-score and ten. 

48. In the vegetable world we find water abundant. 
Wood is composed of six parts charcoal and five parts 
water, with a little mineral matter comprising the ashes. 
Bread is half water; and of the potatoes and turnips 
cooked for our dinner, it comprises seventy-five parts of 
one and ninety of the other 

49. Bodies in which the water is chemically combined 
in definite proportions, are often called hydrates. In the 
image which the Italian peddler carries through our streets 
for sale, there is nearly 1 lb. of H.^O to every 4 lbs. of 
plaster of Paris. One-third of the weight of any ordinary 
soil is this same liquid. Each pound of strong nitric acid 
contains 2|^ oz. of water, which, if removed, would destroy 
the acid itself. 

50. The symbol of carbon is C; the atomic weight, 12. 

51. Carbon is one of the most abundant substances jn 
nature, forming nearly one-half of the entire vegetable 
kingdom, and being a prominent constitutent of limestone, 
corals, marble, raagnesian rocks, etc. 



284 THE examinee's COMPANION. 

52. We find it in three distinct forms or allotropic 
conditions — viz., the diamond, graphite, and amorphous 
carbon. This last term means without crystalline form, 
and includes gas-carbon, charcoal, lamp-black, coal, coke, 
peat, soot, bone-black and ivory-black. In each of these 
various substances C possesses different properties; yet 
any impurities it may contain seem entirely incidental, and 
not at all necessary to its new state. 

53. Charcoal is made by burning piles of wood, so 
covered over with turf as to prevent free access of air. 
The volatile gases, water, etc., are driven off, and the C 
left behind. This forms about \ of the bulk of the wood 
and \ its weight. Charcoal for gunpowder and for medic- 
inal purposes is prepared by heating willow or poplar 
wood in iron retorts. 

54. Coke is the refuse of gas-works, obtained by dis- 
tilling the water, tar, and volatile gases from bituminous 
coal. It is burned in locomotives, blast-furnaces, etc. 

55. Peat is an accumulation of half decomposed vege- 
table matter in swampy places. These peat-beds are of 
vast extent. ■ One-tenth of Ireland is covered by them. A 
bed near the mouth of the River Loire, is said to be fifty 
leagues in circumference. Peat is produced mainly by a 
kind of moss which gradually dies below as it grows 
above, and thus forms beds of great thickness. 

56. Muck is an impure kind of peat, not so fully car- 
bonized; though the term is frequently applied to any 
black swampy soil which contains a large quantity of 
decaying vegetable matter. Like charcoal, it absorbs 
moisture and gases, and is therefore used as a fertilizer. 

57. Combustion, in general, is the rapid union of a 
substance with O, and is accompanied by heat and light. 
There are forms of combustion known to the chemist 
which are not oxidation. 

58. Sometimes chemical changes take place in com- 
bustible substances, whereby heat enough is generated to 



CHEMISTRY ANSWERS. . 285 

cause ignition. Fresh-burned charcoal has the power of 
absorbing gases in its pores so rapidly as to become 
ignited. Heaps of coal take fire from the iron pyrites 
contained in them, which is decomposed by the moisture of 
the air. The waste cotton used in mills for wiping oil 
from the machinery, when thrown into large heaps, often 
absorbs O from the air so rapidly that it bursts into a blaze. 

59. The "air we breathe" consists of N, O, COg, and 
watery vapor. The first composes |, the second y, the 
third about ywwoo^ ^"^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^ variable amount. The 
N and O form so large a part, that they are considered in 
ordinary calculation to compose the whole atmosphere. 

60. A very clear idea of the proportion of these sev- 
eral constituents may be formed by conceiving the air, not 
as now dense near the surface of the earth, and gradually 
becoming rarefied as we ascend to its extreme limit of 
perhaps 500 miles, but of a density throughout equal to 
that which it now possesses near the earth. 

61. The atmosphere would then be about five miles 
high. The vapor would form upon the ground a sheet of 
HgO five inches deep, next to this the C Oj a layer of thir- 
teen feet, then the O a layer of one mile, and last of all 
the N one of four miles. 

62. In this arrangement we have supposed the gases to 
be placed in the order of their specific gravity. The 
atmosphere is not thus composed in fact, the various gases 
being equally mingled throughout, in accordance with a 
principle called the " Xmo of the diffusion of Gases.'''' 

63. The halogens are: 1. chlorine; symbol, CI; atomic 
weight, 35.5. 2. iodine; symbol, I; atomic weight, 127, 
3. bromine; symbol, Br; atomic weight, 80. 4. fluorine; 
symbol, F; atomic weight, 19. 

64. These four elements are closely allied, and are 
known as the halogens, from hals, salt, because they form a 
class of compounds [Haloids) which resemble common salt. 

65. Chlorine is named from its green color. It is 



286 THE examinee's companion. 

chiefly found in salt, of which it forms 60 per cent. It 
also has a peculiarly disagreeable odor, and produces a 
suffocating cough, which can be relieved by breathing 
ammonia or ether. 

66. Bromine — named from its bad odor — is a poisonous, 
volatile, deep-red liquid, with the general properties of 
CI. It is principally found in sea- water, forms bromides 
with the metals, and is used in photography and medicine. 

6T. Fluorine is the only element that will not unite with 
O. It exists, in small quantities, in the enamel of the 
teeth. It is found in Derbyshire or fluor spar(CaF2), of 
which beautiful ornaments are made. It unites with H, 
forming hydrofluoric acid (HF), noted for its corrosive 
action on glass. So delicate is the test that by this means 
the presence of F has been detected in fossil teeth. 

68. Iodine is named from its beautiful violet colored 
vapor. It is made from kelp (the ashes of sea-weed), and 
is found in sea-water and in some mineral springs. It 
crystallizes in bluish-black scales, emits a smell resembling 
that of CI, sublimes slowly, and is deposited in crystals on 
the sides of the bottle in which it is kept. 

69. Boron is found in nature in combination with O, as 
b"oracic acid. Symbol, B. Atomic weight, 10.9. Boracic 
acid is abundant in the volcanic districts of Tuscany. 
Along the sides of the mountains, series of basins are 
excavated and filled with cold water from the neighboring 
springs. Into these basins the jets of steam, charged 
with boracic acid, are conducted. The H^O absorbs the 
acid, and itself becomes heated to the boiling-point. It 
is then drawn off into the next lower basin. This process 
is continued until the bottom one is reached, when the 
solution runs into leaden pans heated by the steam from 
the earth; here the HgO is evaporated, and the boracic 
acid collected. 

VO. Borax is a salt of this acid. It is a natural produc- 
tion, formerly obtained by the drying of certain lakes in 



CHEMISTRY ANSWERS. 287 

Thibet, but since found abundantly in California and 
Nevada. When dissolved in alcohol, borax gives to the 
flame a peculiar green tint. This is an easy test of the 
presence of this acid, 

71. The salt is employed in welding. It dissolves the 
oxide of the metal, and keeps the surface bright for solder- 
ing. It softens hard water by uniting with the soluble 
salts of lime or magnesia, and making insoluble ones which 
settle and form a thin sediment on the bottom of pitchers 
in which it is placed. 

72. Silicon is found in combination with O as silica, 
commonly called silex or quartz. So abundant is this 
oxide that it probably comprises nearly one-half of the 
earth's crust. It forms beautiful crystals and some of the 
most precious gems. When pure, it is transparent and col- 
orless, as in rock crystal. Symbol, Si. Atbraic weight, 28. 

73. Silicon is tasteless, odoi'less, and colorless. It 
seems very strange to call such an inert substance an 
anhydride; yet it readily unites with the alkalies, neutral- 
izes their properties, and forms a large class of salts known 
as the silicates, which are found in the most common 
rocks. — Examjyle: feldspar, found in granite. 

74. Certain springs contain large quantities of some 
alkaline carbonate; their waters, therefore, dissolve silica 
abundantly. If we place a bit of wood in them, as fast 
as it decays, particles of silica will take its place — atom by 
atom — and thus petrify the wood. The wood has not been 
changed to stone, but has been replaced by stone. 

75. The symbol of sulphur is S. Atomic weight, 32. 

76. Sulphur is found native in volcanic regions. It is 
mined at Mount jEtna in great quantities. United with 
the metals it forms sulphides, known as cinnabar, iron 
pyrites, galena, blende, etc. Combined with O it exists 
in gypsum (plaster), heavy spar, and other sulphates. It is 
found in the hair, and many dyes contain Pb which unites 
with the S, and forms a black compound that stains the hair. 



288 THE examiner's companion. 

77. Sulphur is also contained in eggs, and so tarnishes 
our spoons by forming a sulphide of silver. It is always 
present in the flesh, and hence manifests itself in our per- 
spiration. In commerce it is sold as brimstone, formed by 
melting S and running it into moulds; also as flowers of 
sulphur, obtained by sublimation. 

78. Sulphuric acid, oil of vitriol, is the king of the 
acids. It is of the utmost importance to the manufacturer 
and chemist, as it is used in the preparation of nearly all 
other acids, and forms many valuable compounds. 

79. The name phosphorus signifies light-bearer, given 
because this substance glows in the dark. It was called by 
the old alchemists the " Son of Satan." Symbol, P. 
Atomic w^eight, 31. 

80. Phosphorus exists in small quantities in rocks, and 
by their decay passes into the soil, is taken up by plants, 
is then stored in their seeds (wheat, corn, oats, etc.), and 
finally passes into our bodies. As calcium phosphate 
("phosphate of lime"), it is a prominent constituent of our 
bones. Phosphorus is so necessary to the operation of the 
brain that the alchemists had a saying, "No phosphorus, 
no brains." 

81. The principal use of phosphorus is in the manu- 
facture of matches. In making the Lucifer Match the bits 
of wood are first dipped in melted S and dried; then in a 
paste of phosphorus, nitre, and glue, which completes the 
process. The object of the nitre is to furnish O to quicken 
the combustion. Instead of this, potassium chlorate is 
sometimes used, 

82. The Safety Match is made in this manner: The 
pieces of wood are dipped into melted paraflSne, and dried. 
They are then capped with a paste of potassium chlorate, 
sulphide of antimony, powdered glass, and gum-water. 
They ignite only when rubbed on a surface covered with 
a mixture of red phosphorus ard powdered glass. 

83. The luminous appearance of putrefying fish and 



CHEMISTRY ANSWERS. 289 

decayed wood is well known. The latter is sometimes 
called " fox-fire." The " glow-worm's fitful light " is 
associated with our memory of beautiful summer evenings. 
In the West Indies, fire-flies are found that emit a green 
light when resting, and a red one when flying. They are 
so brilliant that one will furnish light enough for reading. 
The natives wear them for ornaments on their bonnets, 
and illuminate their houses by suspending them as lamps. 

84. Arsenic is a brittle, steel-gray metal, commonly 
sold, when impure, as cobalt. If heated in the open air it 
gives off the odor of garlic, which is a test of arsenic. 
Symbol, As. Atomic weight, 75. 

85. "Arsenic" is soluble in hot H.^O, and has a slightly 
sweetish taste. It is a powerful poison, doses of two or 
three grains being fatal, although an over-dose acts as an 
emetic. It is an antiseptic, and so in cases of poisoning 
frequently attracts attention by the preservation of parts 
of the body-, even twenty or thirty years after the murder 
has been committed. The antidote is milk or whites of eggs. 

86. Potassium is found abundantly in the various 
rocks, which by their decomposition furnish it to the plants 
from which we obtain our entire supply. This metal was 
discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy, in 1807. Symbol, K. 
Atomic weight, 39. 

87. Potassium is a silvery-white metal, soft enough to 
be spread with a knife, and light enough to float like cork. 
Its afflinity for O is so great that it is always kept under 
the surface of naphtha, which contains no O. K, when 
thrown on H.^O, decomposes it, sets free one atom of H, 
and forms KIIO. The heat developed is so great, that 
the H catches fire and burns with some volatilized K, 
which tinges the flame with a beautiful purple tint. If 
the HgO be first colored with red litmus, it will become 
blue by the alkali formed. 

88. Sodium is found principally in common salt. Sym- 
bol, Na. Atomic weight, 23. Its preparation is similar to 

19 



290 THE examiner's COMPANIOJSr. 

that of K, but is more easily managed. It is very like K 
in appearance, properties, and reaction. When thrown on 
HgO it rolls over its surface like a tiny silver ball; if the 
HgO be heated, it bursts into a bright yellow blaze. The 
test of all the soda salts is the yellow tint which their 
solution in alcohol gives to flame. 

89. This is a compound which has never been separated, 
but it is generally thought to be the base of the salts 
formed by the action of the acids upon the alkali ammonia, 
which in form, color, and lustre closely resemble the cor- 
responding salts of K. The analogy between its action 
and that of the simple metals is so very striking that it is 
considered a compound metal, acting the part of a simple 
one, as Cy does that of a compound halogen. Symbol, 
H4N. Molecular weight, 18. 

90. Calcium exists abundantly in limestone, gypsum, 
and in the bones of the body. There are 5 lbs. of phos- 
phate of lime, one of carbonate of lime, and 3 oz. of 
fluoride of calcium in the body of an adult weighing 154 
lbs. Calcium commonly occurs, in nature, as a sulphate or 
a carbonate; and, in commerce, as an oxide. Symbol, Ca. 
Atomic weight, 40. 

91. These metals are very much like Ca. The salts of 
barium give a green tint to a flame and those of strontium 
a beautiful crimson; and are hence much used in pyro- 
techny. Barium sulphate, commonly called barytes, is 
found as a white mineral, noted for its weight, whence it 
is often termed heavy spar. Indeed, the term barium is 
derived from a Greek word meaning heavy. This mineral 
is largely used for adulterating white lead. 

92. Magnesium is found in augite, hornblende, meer- 
schaum, soap-stone, talc, serpentine, dolomite, and other 
rocks. Its salts give the bitter taste to sea-water. When 
pure, it has a silvery lustre and appearance. It is very 
light and flexible. A thin ribbon of the metal will take 
fire from an ignited match, when it will burn with a bril- 



CHEMISTRY ANSWERS. 291 

liant white light, casting dense shadows through an ordinary- 
flame, and depositing flakes of MgO. 

93. This light possesses the actinic or chemical princi- 
ple so perfectly, that it is used for taking photographs at 
night, views of coal mines, interiors of dark churches, etc. 
It has every ray of the spectrum, and so does not, like gas- 
light, change some of the colors of an object ux)on which 
it falls. 

94. Magnesium lanterns are much used for purposes of 
illumination. By means of clock-work, the metal, in the 
form of a narrow ribbon, is fed in front of a concave mir- 
ror, at the focus of which it bui-ns. It is hoped that the 
process of manufacture may be cheapened, so that Mg may- 
be brought within the scope of the arts. Symbol, Mg. 
Atomic weight, 24.3. 

95. Aluminum is named from alum, in which it occurs. 
It is also called the " clay metal." It is the metallic base 
of clay, mica, slate, and feldspar rocks. Next to O and 
Si, it is probably the most abundant element of the earth's 
crust. It is a bright, silver- white metal; does not oxidize 
in the air, nor tarnish by H.^S. 

960 It gives a clear musical ring; is only one-fourth as 
heavy as Ag; is ductile, malleable, and tenacious. It readily 
dissolves in HCl, and in solutions of the alkalies, but with 
difficulty in HNO3 and H^SO^. On account of its abun- 
dance (every clay-bank is a mine of it) and useful prop- 
erties, it must ultimately come into common use in the 
arts and domestic life. Symbol, Al. Atomic weight, 27.5. 

97« Symbol, Fe. Atomic weight, 56. Iron is the sym- 
bol of civilization. Its value in the arts can be measured 
only by the progress of the present age. In its adapta- 
tions and employments it has kept pace with scientific 
discoveries and improvements, so that the uses of iron 
may readily indicate the advancement of a nation. It is 
worth more to the world than all the other metals combined. 

98. We could dispense with gold and silver — they 



292 THE examiner's companion. 

largely minister to luxury and refinement, but iron repre- 
sents solely the results of honest labor. Its use is univer- 
sal, and it is fitted alike for massive iron cables, and for 
screws so tiny that they can be seen only by the micro- 
scope, appearing to the naked eye like grains of black sand. 
99, Its abundance everywhere indicates how indispens- 
able the Creator deemed it to the education and develop- 
ment of man. There is no "California" of iron. Each 
nation has its own supply. No other material is so en- 
hanced in value by labor. 

100. Iron is rarely found native, ^. c, in the metallic 
condition. Meteors, however, containing as high as 93 
per cent of Fe associated with Ni and other metals, have 
fallen to the earth from space. Fe in combination with vari- 
ous other substances is widely diffused. It is found in 
the ashes of plants and the blood of animals. Many min- 
erals contain it in considerable quantities. The ores from 
which it is extracted are generally oxides or carbonates. 

101. Zinc, or "spelter," as it is called in commerce, is 
found as ZnO, or red oxide, in New Jersey, and as ZnS, 
or zinc blende, in many places. Symbol, Zn. Atomic 
weight, 65. 

102. Zinc is ordinarily brittle, but when heated to 
200® or 300° F., it becomes malleable, and can be rolled 
out into the sheet Zn in common use. It burns in the air 
with a magnificent green light, forming flakes of ZnO, 
sometimes called "Philosopher's Wool." "When exposed 
to the air, Zn soon oxidizes, and the thin film of white ox- 
ide formed over the surface protects it from further change. 

103. Tin, though one of the metals longest known to 
man, is found in but few localities. It is reduced from its 
binoxide by the action of C. Symbol, Sn. Atomic weight, 1 1 8. 

104. It is soft and not very ductile, but is quite malle- 
able, so that tinfoil is not more than -j-oVo" ^^ ^^ ^"^^ 
in thickness. When quickly bent, it utters a shrill sound, 
called the "tin cry," caused by the crystals moving upon 



CHEMISTRY ANSWERS. 293 

each other. Tin does not oxidize at ordinary tempera- 
tures. Its tendency to crystallize is remarkable. 

105. Copper is found native near Lake Superior, fre- 
quently in masses of great size. In these mines, stone 
hammers have been discovered, the tools of a people older 
than the Indians, who probably occupied this continent, 
and worked the mines. In the Western mounds, also, cop- 
per instruments are found. The sulphide, copper pyrites, 
is a well-known ore. The symbol of copper is Cu. Atomic 
weight, 63.5. 

106. Copper is ductile, malleable, and an excellent con- 
ductor of heat and electricity. Its vapor gives a charac- 
teristic and beautiful green color to flame. It is hardened 
by hammering, and softened by heating and plunging into 
cold HgO. 

107. The symbol of lead is Pb. Atomic weight, 207. 
The most common ore of Pb is galena, PbS, which is re- 
duced by roasting in a reverberatory furnace. The S 
burns and leaves the metal. 

108. Lead is malleable, but contracts as it solidifies; so 
it can not be used for castings. It is poisonous, though 
not immediately, as "bullets have been swallowed, and then 
thrown off without any harm except the fright." Its effects 
seem to accumulate in the system, and finally to manifest 
themselves in some disease. Persons who work in lead, 
as painters and plumbers, after a time suffer with colics, 
paralysis, etc. 

109. Lead Acetate, Sugar of Lead, has a sweet, pleas- 
ant taste, but is a virulent poison. Its antidote is Epsom 
salt, which forms an insoluble lead sulphate, H^O dissolves 
sugar of lead readily. If a piece of Zn, cut in small strips, 
be suspended in a bottle filled with a solution of lead ace- 
tate, the Pb will be deposited upon it by voltaic action in 
beautiful metallic spangles, forming the "lead-tree." 

110. Gold is found sometimes in masses called nuggets, 
but generally in scattered grains, or scales. As the rocks 



294 THE examiner's OOMPANIOJ^. 

in which it occurs disintegrate by the action of the 
elements and form soil, the gold is gradually washed into 
the valleys below, and thence into the streams and rivers, 
where, owing to its specific gravity, it settles and collects 
in the mud and gravel of their beds. 

111. The symbol of gold is Au. Atomic weight, 197. 

112. As the metal is thus found native, the process is 
purely mechanical, and consists simply in washing out the 
dirt and gravel in wash-pans, rockers, sluices, etc., at the 
bottom of which the Au accumulates. 

113. In the quartz-mills, the rook is thrown into 
troughs of water, where, by heavy stamj^s, the ore is crushed 
to powder. As the thin liquid mud thus formed splashes 
up on either side, it runs over broad, metallic tables covered 
with Hg; or is washed through a fine wire-screen, and car- 
ried to the "amalgamating pans" by a little stream of water. 

114. The Hg unites with the particles of Au and forms 
with them an amalgam (a compound of mercury and 
a metal). Gold is easily separated from mercury by dis- 
tillation, and the latter collected to be used again. 

115. Pure gold is nearly as soft as lead. It is extremely 
malleable and ductile. Its solvent is aqua-regia. It does 
not oxidize at any temperature, and, on account of its inde- 
structibility, it was anciently called the king of the metals. 

116. Silver is found throughout the West in a great 
variety of forms — most commonly, however, combined with 
S, as hlack sulphide, AggS; with CI, forming horn-silver, 
Ag CI; with S and As or Sb, making ruby-silver, and also 
associated with Pb in ordinary galena. The symbol of 
silver is Ag. Atomic weight, 108. 

117. The sulphide is refined as follows: The ore is 
crushed into fine powder and then roasted with common 
salt. The CI of the salt unites with the Ag, forming silver 
chloride. This is next put into a revolving cylinder with 
HgO, Hg, and iron scraps. The Fe removes the CI from 
the silver, when the Hg takes it up, thus forming au 



CHEMISTRY ANSWERS. 295 

amalgam of Hg and Ag. From this the Ag is easily ob- 
tained, as in gold-washing. From liorn-silver, Ag CI, the 
process is like the latter part of that just described. 

118. From lead the Ag can be profitably obtained when 
there are only two or three ounces in a ton. The alloy of 
the two metals is melted and then slowly cooled, Pb solid- 
ifies much sooner than Ag, and by skimming out the crystals 
of Pb as fast as formed, it may be almost entirely separated. 

119. Silver is the whitest of metals. It is malleable 
and ductile. It expands at the moment of solidification, 
and, therefore, can be ca st. It has a powerful attraction for S, 
forming silver sulphide. Silver spoons and door-knobs are 
tarnished by the minute quantities of H.^S pi'esent in the air. 

120. Platinum is chiefly found in the Ural Mountains, 
where it occurs in alluvial deposits, usually in small, flat- 
tened grains. Symbol, Pt. Atomic weight, 197. 

121. The "ore," as it is called, is separated from the 
earthy particles by washing. The grains of Pt remain 
behind with particles of Au, Fcg O^, and an alloy of Os 
and Jr. The Au is removed by amalgamation, and the Fe 
by a magnet. The Pt is then dissolved by melted Pb 
and afterward recovered from this alloy by cupellation. 

122. Platinum resembles Ag in its appearance. It is 
one of the most ductile metals, wire being made from it 
so fine as to be invisible to the naked eye. It is soluble 
in aqua-regia, but not in the simple acids. It does not 
oxidize in the air, is the most infusible of metals, and can 
be melted only by the heat of the compound blow-pipe or 
voltaic battery. In the arts it is fused in the former man- 
ner. These properties fit it for making crucibles that are 
invaluable to the chemist. 

123. Mercury is also called quicksilver, because it runs 
about as if it were alive, and was supposed by the alchem- 
ists to contain silver. It was known very anciently, and 
the mines of Spain were worked by the Romans. Symbol, 
Hg. Atomic weight, 200. 



296 THE examinee's companion. 

124. Cinnabar, HgS, a brilliant red ore, is the prin- 
cipal source of this metal. "When sublimed with S, Hg 
forms the pigment known as "vermilion." 

125. Mercury is found native in Mexico in very small 
quantities, where the mines are said to have been discov- 
ered by a slave, who, in climbing a mountain, came to a 
very steep ascent. To aid him in surmounting this, he 
tried to draw himself up by a bush which grew in a crev- 
ice above. The shrub, however, giving way, was torn up 
by the roots, and a tiny stream, of what seemed liquid 
silver, trickled down upon him. 

126. Mercury is readily prepared by roasting HgS in 
the open air. The S jjasses off as SO 2, while the Hg 
volatilizes and is condensed in earthen pipes. 

127. Mercury emits a vapor at all temperatures above 
40® F, Its solvent is HNO3. It forms an amalgam with 
gold or silver. This is its most singular property. A gold 
leaf dropped upon mercury disappears like a snow-flake in 
water. Particles of Ag or Au, too fine to be seen by the 
eye, will be found by Hg and gathered from a mass of ore. 

128. Mercury is extensively employed in the manu- 
facture of thermometers and barometers; for silvering 
mirrors; and for extracting the precious metals from their 
ores. When we look in a mirror we rarely realize what it 
has cost others to thus minister to our comfort. The 
workmen are short-lived. A paralysis sometimes attacks 
them within a few weeks after they enter the manufactory, 
and it is thought remarkable if a man escapes for a year 
or two. Its effects are similar to those of calomel; the 
patient dances instead of walking, and can not direct the 
motion of his arms, nor in some cases even masticate his food. 

129. The action of Hg on the human system is too 
well known to need description. " In its metallic state, 
Hg has been taken with impunity in quantities of a pound 
weight" (^American. Cyclopedia), but when finely divided, 
as in vapor, mercurial ointment, or " blue-pill," its effects 



CHEMISTRY — ANSWERS. 297 

are marked. It renders the patient extremely susceptible 
to colds; acts, as is generally thought, upon the liver, 
increasing the secretion of bile, and repeated doses pro- 
duce " salivation." 

130. The alloys are very numerous, and many of them 
possess properties so different from their elements that 
they almost seem like new metals. The color and hard- 
ness are changed, and sometimes the melting point is below 
that of any one of the constituents. The proportions of 
the metals used vary. 

131. Type-metal contains 3 parts of lead to 1 of anti- 
mony. Pewter contains 4 parts of Sn and 1 of Pb. Brit- 
annia consists of 100 parts of Sn, 8 of Sb, 2 of Bi, and 2 of Cu. 

132. Brass is 2 parts of Cu and 1 of Zn. German sil- 
ver contains Cu, Zn, and Ni (brass whitened by nickel). 
Soft solder, used by tinsmiths, is made by melting Pb and 
Sn together, the usual proportion being half-and half. 
Hard solder is composed of Cu and Zn. 

133. Fusible metal melts at 201°, and spoons made of 
it will fuse in hot tea. It can be melted in a paper-crucible 
over a candle. It consists of Bi, Pb, and Sn. Yet the 
first metal melts at 507°, the second at 617°, and the third 
at 442°. Bronze is 95 parts of Cu, 4 of Sn, and 1 of Zn. 
Oreide is a beautiful alloy of brass resembling gold, but 
it soon tarnishes by exposure to the air, 

134. Gold is soldered with an alloy of itself and Ag. 
Silver, with itself and Cu. Copper, with itself and Zn; 
the principle being that the metal of lower fusing point 
causes the other to melt more easily. Aluminum bronze, 
or gold, is an alloy of Al and Cu. It is elastic, malleable, 
and very light. It strikingly resembles gold, and is much 
used instead of that costly metal. 

135. The precious metals, when pure, are too soft for 
common use. They are therefore hardened by other metals. 

136. The gold coin of the United States consists of 9 
parts of gold and 1 of alloy. The alloy is composed of 



298 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

9 parts of Cu, whiteneu by 1 of Ag, so as not to darken 
the gold coin, 

137. Silver coin is 9 parts of Ag and 1 of Cu. The 
nickel cent is 88 parts of Cu and 12 of Ni. Cu being 
cheaper than Ni, it is used to make the coin larger. 

138. The term carat, applied to the precious metals, 
means -Jy pai't. Therefore, gold 18 carats fine, contains 
^ of gold and ^^ of alloy. 

139. Shot is an alloy of about 1 part of As to 100 of Pb. 
The manufacture is carried on in what are called "shot- 
towers," some of which are two hundred and fifty feet 
high. The alloy is melted at the top of the building, and 
poured through colanders. The metal, in falling, breaks 
up into drops, which take the spherical form, harden, and 
are caught at the bottom in a well of water which cools 
the shot and also prevents their being bruised in striking. 

140. The shot are dipped out, dried, and then assorted, 
by sifting in a revolving cylinder, which is set slightly in- 
clined and perforated with holes, increasing in size from 
the top to the bottom. The shot being poured in at the 
top, the small ones drop through first, next the larger, and 
so on, till the largest reach the bottom. Each size is re- 
ceived in its own box. Shot are polished by being agi- 
tated for several hours with black-lead, in a rapidly revolv- 
ing wheel. They are finally tested by rolling them down 
a series of inclined planes placed at a little distance from 
each other. The spherical shot will jump from one plane 
to the next, while the imperfect ones will fall short, and 
drop below; or sometimes, by rolling down a single inclined 
plane, the spherical ones will go to the bottom, while the 
imperfect ones roll off at the sides. 




QUESTIONS. 



Define logic. 

How is the object-matter of logic found? 
What is thinking, or thought, in a loose sense? 
What is thinking, or thought, in a stricter sense? 
Strictly speaking, what is thought or thinking? 
What are the forms of thinking or thought? 
As thinking is embodied in language, the most com- 
mon forms of thought may be how learned? 
8. What is a syllogism? 

How are these propositions mentioned,denominated? 
What is the practical aim of logic? 
What is practical science or art? 
How far is logic theoretical and how far practical? 
Logic has how many fundamental principles? 
What are these fundamental principles? 
What is the law of identity, or affirmation? 
What is the law of contradiction, or negation? 
What is the law of excluded middle, or exclusion? 
What is the law of reason and consequent, or suffi- 



1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 



9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 



cient reason? 



(299) 



300 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

19 What are the divisions under which logic should 
be presented? 

20. Define pure logic. 

21. What is applied logic? 

22. What is the aim of the logic of conception? 

23. Define conception, 

24. Define observation. 

25. What is said of conception proper? 

26. Define conception proper. 

27. What is said of the second essential element of 
conception? 

28. How may it be defined from another point of view? 

29. What is the third essential element in conception? 

30. What is the meaning of logical partition? 

31. Define logical division. 

32. Should the student distinguish between partition 
and division? 

33. What is the meaning of logical definition? 

34. What is the aim of the logic of judgment? 

35. Define judgment. 

36. What is the result of the operation of judging? 

37. What is said of the formation of judgments? 

38. Define a categorical judgment. 

39. Define a hypothetical judgment. 

40. The supposition may be what? 

41. What is said of the unfolding of judgments? 

42. What are the topics mentioned? 

43. What is stated regarding the development of con- 
tained judgments? 

44. State what is said regarding the development of 
implied judgments. 

45. What is an inferred judgment? 

46. What is the definition of reasoning? 

47. Define construction. 

48. How does Ueberweg define system? 

49. Define rational system. Mechanical system. 



LOGIC— QUESTIONS. 301 

50. How many forms of rational system? 

51. What is the aim in scientific system? 

52. What is the aim in artistic system? 

53. What is the aim in practical system? 

54. What is said of constructive thinking? 

55. State what is said of the best use of the power of 
construction in the work of thinking? 

56. How may the elements of any system be learned? 

57. What should be the last aim of all training in 
thinking? 



♦LOBie. 





ANSWERS. 



1. Logic is the art of directing the reason aright in 
acquiring the knowledge of things, for the instruction 
both of ourselves and others. 

2. The object-matter of logic is found in the forms of 
thinking or thought. 

3. In a loose sense, any operation of the human soul is 
sometimes spoken of as thought. The man knows, feels, 
and purposes or wills; any act of knowing, feeling, or 
willing may, in this loose sense, be called thinking. The 
term is evidently not used in this loose sense in the 
definition of logic. 

4. In a stricter sense, thinking or thought is confined 
to the operations of the intellect or power of knowing. 
In popular phrase, it is any act of the head as distinguished 
from the heart and will of the man. In this sense, "thinking" 
is synonymous with "knowing." 

5. Thought or thinking, strictly speaking, is the opera- 
tion or product of the operation of the third aijd fourth 
faculties only, that is of the comparative and constructive 
faculties only. These faculties are the thought faculties; 
their operation is thinking; and the product of their 
operation is thought. 

(302) 



LOGIC ANSWERS. 303 

6. The forms of thinking or thought are the forms in 
which the discursive or thought faculties act, or the 
products of that action. 

7. They may be learned by an examination of thought 
expressed in language. Take the following example: 
Light is opposed to darkness; feathers are light; there- 
fore, feathers are opposed to darkness. This is in the 
form of a syllogism. 

8. A syllogism embodies an argument, or process of 
reasoning. In it two propositions are compared and a 
conclusion reached which is expressed in a third proposi- 
tion. Example: A plant has not the power of locomotion; 
an oak is a plant; therefore an oak has not the power of 
locomotion. 

9. These propositions are denominated respectively the 
major, the minor, and the conclusion. If the premises are 
not true, and the syllogism is regular, the reasoning is valid, 
and the conclusion, whether true or false, is correctly derived. 

10. The practical aim of logic is to train to correct 
thinking or thought. 

11. Practical science, or art, as it is sometimes called, 
is a form of science in which the systematic knowledge of 
the subject treated is subordinate to the training to skill 
in some activity. 

12. Logic is a theoretical science, or science proper, so 
far as it aims to give a systematic view of the laws of 
thought; it is a practical science, or art, so far as it subor- 
dinates this to its aim to train to skill in applying the laws 
of thought in avoiding error and arriving at truth. 

13. Logic, like other sciences, has certain fundamental 
principles upon which the more special laws rest. These 
are usually reduced to four. 

14. 1. The law of identity, or affirmation; 2, The law 
of contradiction, or negation; 3. The law of excluded mid- 
dle, or exclusion; 4. The law of reason and consequent, or 
sufficient reason. 



304 THE examiner's companion. 

15. The law of identity may be stated as follows: 
Everything is identical with itself, or is what it is, and we 
may affirm this of it. This has been formulated: A is A; 
or A=A. Whatever is, is. 

16. The law of contradiction, negation, or, as Hamil- 
ton terms it, non-contradiction, may be stated as follows : 
Everything is not what it is not, and we may affirm this of 
it. Or, conflicting attributes cannot co-exist in and may 
not be affirmed of the same object. This has been formu- 
lated: A is n't not— A. Nothing can both be and not be. 

17. It may be stated as follows: Of two contradictories 
one must be true and the other false. If one is affirmed, 
the other is thereby denied. One excludes the other, and 
hence there can be no medium affirmation between the 
two. This axiom has been formulated; A either is oris not. 
A either is or is not B. Everything must either be or not be. 

18. That all continuous thought must be rationally con- 
nected. The law has been formulated: Infer nothing with- 
out a ground or reason. The starting-point in continuous 
thinking is the affirmation of some knowledge by which 
the mind is necessitated to affirm or posit something else. 
This starting-point is called the logical reason, ground, or 
antecedent, or, as Hamilton suggests, condition; that some- 
thing else which the mind is necessitated to affirm or posit 
is called the logical consequent, or the conditioned; the rela- 
tion between the reason and consequent is called the 
logical connection or consequence. 

19. This question has been variously answered. The 
most common division is, perhaps, into Pure logic and 
Applied logic. Hamilton divides it into Pure and Modi- 
fied. Regarded as a Practical science, it is, perhaps, better 
to base its divisions on the various Forms of Thought. 

20. Pure logicis the science of the necessaryand formal 
laws of thought as thought. It treats of the necessary 
laws of thought, in the strict sense of discursive thought, 
as they are in themselves, whatever may be the object- 



LOGIC ANSWERS. 305 

matter to which they are applied. In this sense logic is a 
science of abstractions, like pure mathematics or meta- 
physics. As furnishing the principles implied in and 
underlying the construction of all other sciences, it has 
also been called " the sciences of sciences." 

21. Applied logic treats of the application of the prin- 
ciples, or laws of thought, unfolded in pure logic, to the 
investigation of truth. It assists in ascertaining and fol- 
lowing right processes of thought and in avoiding wrong 
processes. 

22. The aim of the logic of conception is to train the 
miud to skill in dealing with the first and fundamental 
form of thought. 

23. Conception is that form of thought in which we 
compare various acquired knowledges and connect them 
by resembling marks or attributes, thus forming concepts, 
classes, and general terms. 

24. Observation is the mental process by which we 
gain a minute and comprehensive knowledge of objects 
and their make-up. The instruments of observation are 
the senses and consciousness. 

25. Conception proper is the first essential element in 
the first form of thought. The work of observation makes 
ready the material for it; Conception proper begins the 
work of comparing that material, arriving at the thought- 
connections, and gathering up and combining the results in 
a thought. 

26. Conception proper is the mental process of fixing 
upon resembling parts, marks, or properties of objects, and 
grasping them singly or together as attribute thoughts or 
concepts. 

27. The second essential element of conception, in the 
wide sense, may be defined as grasping in one' thought, 
called a class, all the objects to which the attributes in- 
cluded in any concept or notion are common. Hence the 
process is called classification. 

20 



306 THE examinee's companion. 

28. From another point of view it may be defined as 
extending the application of the content of a concept or 
notion to all the objects to which it is applicable. Hence 
the process is also called generalization. 

29. When by the processes of conception, concepts and 
classes have been formed, they need to be embodied in 
language in order that they may be fixed and made subject 
to recall for further use. 

30. Logical partition is that form of analysis which takes 
a concept proper, as a complex of properties or attributes, 
and unfolds the component properties. In other words, 
logical partition is the complete and orderly statement of 
the parts of the content of a concept, or the separation of 
a complex attribute into its component attributes. 

31. Logical division is that form of logical analysis 
which takes a conception as a genus or class whole and 
unfolds its component species. In the words of Ueber- 
v^Q^: "Division is the complete and orderly statement of 
the parts of the extent of a notion, or the separation of a 
genus into its species." 

32. The student needs to distinguish carefully between 
partition and division. The former takes a concept proper 
or attribute whole and separates it into its component 
properties; the latter takes a genus or class whole and sep- 
arates it into its component species made up of individuals. 

33. Logical definition is the accurate unfolding of the 
signification of the terms which embody thought. Logical 
definition separates a conception, as expressed by a word, 
from all other conceptions by fixing upon and presenting 
the essential or distinctive property or properties. 

34. The aim of the logic of judgment is to train the 
mind to skill in dealing with the second form of thought. 

35. Judgment is that form of thought in which we com- 
pare two notions, and mentally affirm their union or disun- 
ion, on the ground of a like union or disunion apprehended 
in the objects or realities which the notions represent. 



LOGIC ANSWERS. 307 

36. The result of the operation of judging is a complex 
form of thought known as 2, Judgment, the verbal expression 
of which is called an Assertion or Proposition. The con- 
nection between judgment and proposition is so intimate 
that the two terms are used interchangeably. 

37. The formation of judgments is manifestly a most 
important work of thought. Processes of reasoning and 
systems of science and philosophy are made up of combi- 
nations of judgments, and if the judgments are not 
properly and thoroughly established, i. e., if they are not 
true, then the arguments and systems cannot be expected 
to prove true. 

38. A categorical judgment is one in which the predicate 
is affirmed or denied of the subject simply and absolutely, 
or without condition, as, " Captain Jack was a Modoc 
chief; " " Benedict Arnold was not a patriot." The 
affirmatives are based on the principle of Identity, the 
negatives on that of contradiction. 

39. A hypothetical judgment is one in which the 
predication is based upon some circumstance "which 
must be granted or supposed before the assertion be- 
comes applicable." 

40. The supposition may be either a condition or an 
alternative, or both these combined; and hypothetical 
judgments are, therefore, of three kinds conditional, dis- 
junctive, and dilemmatic. 

41. The best use of judgment in the practical work of 
thinking requires that the thinker should be able to unfold 
what may be contained in any judgment, or implied in it, 
or immediately inferred from it. 

42. The topics mentioned are, 1. The development of 
contained judgments. 2. The development of implied 
judgments. 3.. The development of inferred judgments. 

43. That which is contained in any judgment may be 
brought out by analysis of the content or extent of its 
terms, the subject and predicate. This form of analysis 



308 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

is of great service in careful thinking, and especially in 
confirmation of judgments. 

44. The implied judgment, according to Davis, " is one 
that actually exists together with the given judgment, either 
merely in thought or involved covertly in the expression." 

45. An inferred judgment, according to Davis, is "one 
that only virtually or potentially exists in the given judg- 
ment, and is derived from it," Its statement contains 
" something new, there is a step forward, a progress of 
thought. In the inferred judgment there is always either 
a different subject, or a different predicate, from that of 
the premise, and perhaps both." 

46. Reasoning is that form of thought in which we 
compare various judgments and, on the ground of some 
medium or cause, reach other judgments as inferences or 
conclusions from them. 

41. Construction is that higher form of thought in 
which we combine mutually related products of the lower 
forms of thought, according to some rational principle, 
into one relatively complete whole. The product of con- 
struction is known as the system. 

48. Ueberweg defines system as " the orderly combina- 
tion of mutually related knowledge into one relatively 
complete whole." System is either mechanical or rational. 

49. Rational system is that in which the combination 
is a result of the application of some rational principle. 
Mechanical system is that in which such rational principle 
is wanting. 

60. There are three forms of rational system: scientific 
system; artistic system; practical system. These all 
imply orderly arrangement, but they differ in the law by 
which that arrangement is effected; that of scientific sys- 
tem being according to the law of the true; that of artis- 
tic system according to the law of the beautiful; that of 
practical system according to the law of the good. 

51. In scientific system the aim is to combine the 



LOGIC ANSWERS. 309 

related thoughts in such a way that the totality will 
exactly express the truth and the whole truth. It is, there- 
fore, said to be governed by the Law of the True. 

52. In artistic system the aim is to combine the related 
truths in such a way as to produce a totality which will 
express diversity in unity, or beauty. It is, therefore, 
said to be governed by the Law of the Beautiful. 

53. In practical system the aim is to combine forces 
and agencies as means so as to secure a whole by which 
some desired end or good may be secured. It is, there- 
fore, said to be governed by the Law of the Good. 

54. Constructive thinking is manifestly the highest act 
of the human intellect, and should, therefore, be made 
prominent in the later stages of higher education. 

55. The best use of the power of construction in the 
work of thinking requires that the thinker should be able 
to grasp and unfold what may be contained in any system, 
and to test such system by the principles of construction, 
scientific and practical. 

56. The elements of any system may be learned from 
the laws of construction. In unfolding scientific con- 
structions three things are embraced: First, the grasping 
of the totality involved in the system; secondly, the study 
of the relations of the parts or the articulation of the sys- 
tem; thirdly, the comparison of the system with the object- 
ive reality. 

57. The last aim of all training in thinking should be 
to prepare for and lead to constructive thinking. The safe 
conduct of life, in the largest and best sense, will depend 
upon the thinker's power to know in system, — that is, to 
distinguish between true systems and false systems, as pre- 
sented by others, and to construct two systems scientific 
and practical for himself. To help to prepare man intel- 
lectually for such conduct of life should be the aim of the 
Practical Logic of Construction. 








W/T^^Z 



PRACTICAL INFORMATION. 




QUESTIONS. 



1. What can you say of Abraham? 

2. State what is said of Adam's-apple. 

3. What is an Air-engine? 

4. What is the difference between Allopathy and 
Homeopathy? 

5. Define the meaning of All-Saints' Day. All- 
Souls' Day. 

6. How many inhabitants on the earth? 

7. What are the number of deaths per annum, day, 
hour, minute, second? 

8. What is the average duration of life throughout 
the globe? 

9. Which live the longer, married or unmarried 
people? 

10. Which is the longest tunnel in the world? 

11. To how many grains of water will a grain of 
strychnine impart a flavor? 

12. What is said of the statistics and curiosities of the 
Bible? 

13. What can you say of the Chinese Wall? 

(310) 



PRACTICAL INFORMATION-r— QUESTIONS, 311 

14. State what is said of the big trees of California. 

15. Which is the largest theater in the world? 

16. The largest suspension bridge? 

IV. Which is the loftiest active volcano? 

18. Where is the longest span of wire in the world? 

19. Which is the largest ship in the world? 

20. From a strategical point of view, which is the 
greatest fortress? 

21. Mention the largest library in the world. 

22. The largest desert in the world? 

23. Mention the greatest pyramid in the world? 

24. Which is the largest bell in the world? 

25. How many periodicals in Japan? 

26. What peculiarity of the Japanese daily newspapers? 

27. What can you say of Jumbo, the famous elephant? 

28. What was the largest stake ever rowed for? 

29. Mention the greatest billiard match ever played in 
America. 

30. What is the fastest time made by a steamer from 
New York to New Orleans. 

31. Name the first steam-propelled vessel that crossed 
the Atlantic. 

32. What is the Ark of the Covenant? 

33. What is the meaning of Ash- Wednesday? 

34. What can you say of Bacchus? 

35. Describe the Banyan-tree. 

36. What is the meaning of the term hatteU 

37. Define the term Beelzebub. 

38. What is the meaning of the word black-deathl 

39. Give a short description of Bright's Disease.- 

40. What is a carpet-bagger? 

41. What is a cartoon? 

42. Where is catgut manufactured, and for what is it 
used? 

43. What is the meaning of the word chinchilla? 

44. Define the term Christmas. 



312 THE examiner's companion. 

45. What can you say of the cinnamon-stone? 

46. Define the term clearance. 

47. What is a clearing-house? 

48. State what you can of cod-liver-oil. 

49. What are termed the corn-laws? 

50. Define the term curfew. 

51. What is a dead language? 

52. What is said of the Digger Indians? 

53. Tell what you can about the Dismal Swamp. 

54. What is the meaning of Easter-day? 

55. What is further said of Easter-day? 

56. What is experimental philosojihy? 

57. State what is said of the "Field of the Cloth of Gold." 

58. Give a description of the " Fiery Cross." 

59. What is the meaning of the Fifth-monarchy Men? 

60. Give an illustration of the Gas-meter. 

61. State what you can about the " Giant's Causeway." 

62. What is the meaning of Good Friday? 

63. What is meant by the good will of a business? 

64. Tell about the " Gordian Knot." 

65. What is said of the village of Gretna Green? 

66. What is the meaning of Holy-cross Day? 

67. What is the meaning of Holy Water? 

68. What is said of The Valley of Jehoshaphat? 

69. Define the word journalism. 

70. Tell what is said of the Books of Kings. 

71. What is said of the Know-Nothing Party? 

72. State what is said of the Kukluxklan 

73. What is the meaning of Lady-day? 

74. Define the term Laetare Sunday. 

75. Define the term Lammas-day. 

76. Whom was Lazarus? 

77. What is the meaning of Lent? 

78. State what is said of The Long Parliament. 

79. What is the meaning of the terra Love-feast? 

80. What is said of the Lower Empire? 



PRACTICAL INFORMATION QUESTIONS. Sl3 

81. What is the meaning of New Year's-Day? 

82. What is a Normal School? 

83. What is said of the Orangemen? 

84. What is here said of Palm Sunday? 

85. Describe the term Partridge-wood. 

86. Describe the word Passing-bell. 

87. State what is said of The Passover. 

88. What is the meaning of the Order of St. Patrick? 

89. Who was Peter the Hermit? 

90. What is the meaning of Photo-sculpture? 

91. Define Political Economy. 

92. Tell about the Red River country. 

93. What is said of Rogation-Days? 

94. What can you say of Rosetta-wood? 

95. What are Rudolphine Tables? 

96. What is the meaning of the term Sacred Heart of 
Jesus? 

97. Where and what is the Sargasso Sea? 

98. What is said of the Seventh-Day Baptists? 

99. What war is known as the Seven Years' War? 

100. What is the meaning of Shrove-Tuesday? 

101. What is said of the Sisters of Charity? 

102. What can you say of the Star-Chamber? 

103. Define the name Terra-Cotta. 

104. Define a Trades Union. 

105. What is meant by The Truce of God? 

106. State what you know of The Union League. 

107. What is the meaning of St. Valentine's Day? 

108. Define the term Water-brash. 

109. What is the meaning of the word Whiteboys? 

110. Describe the process of Wire-drawing. 



PRACTICAL INFORMATION. 





ANSWERS. 



1. Abraham was the progenitor of the Hebrew nation, 
descendant of Shem, and son of Terah, born in 1996 B. C, 
in Ur of the Chaldees, in Mesopotamia, was the father of 
Isaac and Ishmael. Died at the age of 175 years, and 
was buried in the cave of Machpelah, with Sai*ah his wife. 

2. It is a popular name for the projection formed by 
the thyroid cartilage in the neck; — so called from an idle 
notion that it was occasioned by a piece of the forbidden 
fruit having stuck in Adam's throat. 

3. A machine somewhat analogous to the steam-engine, 
in which heated air is the motive power, united by the 
vapor of water. The advantages of such a machine would 
be, freedom from the danger of explosion, absence of a 
boiler and the necessity for water, and a more economical 
expenditure of heat. But in practice, it is complicated, and 
has not been found to answer, particularly on a large scale. 

4. The difference consists in the allopathists prescrib- 
ing substances which, of their own nature, are calculated 
to remove symptoms like those of the disease to be cured; 
while the homeopathists employ medicines which, in the 
normal state of the patient, are calculated to produce these 
symptoms. 

(314) 



PRACTICAL INFORMATION ANSWERS. 315 

5. A Catholic festival celebrated on the 1st of Novem- 
ber, in cojnmemoration of all the saints in general. All- 
Souls' Day is a Catholic festival held on the 2d of Novem- 
ber, in commemoration of all the faithful deceased. 

0. The earth is inhabited by about 1,300,000,000 of 
inhabitants, viz.: Of the Caucasian race, 360,000,000. Of 
the Mongolian, 550,000,000. Of the Ethiopian, 190,000,000. 
Of the Malay, 200,000,000. Of the American Indian, 
1,000,000. All these respectively speak 3,064 languages, 
and possess 1,000 different religions. 

1. The number of deaths per annum is 33,333,333, or 
91,934 per day, 3,730 per hour, 60 per minute, or 1 per 
second. This loss is compensated for by an equal amount 
of births. 

8. The average duration of life throughout the globe 
is thirty-three years. One-fourth of its population dies be- 
fore the seventh year, and one-half before the seventeenth. 
Out of 10,000 persons, only one reaches his hundreth year, 
only one in 500 his eightieth, and only one in 100 
his sixty-fifth. 

9. Married people live longer than unmarried ones, and 
a tall man is likely to live longer than a short one. Until 
the fiftieth year, women have a better chance of life than 
men; but beyond that period the chances are equal. 

10. The longest tunnel in the world is that of Mount 
St. Gothard, 49,170 feet, being situated on the line of rail- 
road between Lucerne and Milan. The summit of the 
tunnel is 900 feet below the surface at Andermatt, and 
6,600 feet beneath the peak at Kastlehorn, of the St. Gothard 
group. The tunnel is 26| feet wide, and is 18 feet 10 
inches from the floor to the crown of the arched roof. 

11. A grain of strychnine will impart a perceptible 
flavor to 1,750,000 grains of water, and each of these grains 
of water, though containing but the 1,750,000th part 
of a grain of strychnine, the flavor of the strychnine can 
be distinctly tasted. 



316 THE EXA3IIXER's COMPANION. 

12. The biblecontains 66 books, 1,189 chapters, 31,173 
verses, 773,692 words, 3,586,489 letters. The middle verse 
is the eighth verse of the 1 18th Psalm. The longest verse 
is the ninth verse of the eighth chapter of Esther. The 
shortest verse is the thirty-fifth verse of the eleventh chapter 
of St. John. Ezra 7: 21 contains all the letters of the 
alphabet except J. The word and occurs 46,277 times. 
The word Lord 1,855 times. The word revereyidhwt once, 
which is in the ninth verse of the 111th Psalm. There are 
no words or names of more than six syllables. 

13. The Chinese Wall is the largest in the world. It 
was built by the first emperor of the Tain dynasty, about 
220 B.C., as a protection against Tartars. It traverses the 
northern boundary of China, and is carried over the highest 
hills, through the deepest valleys, across rivers, and every 
other natural obstacle. Its length is 1,250 miles. Including 
a parapet of five feet, the total height of the wall is 20 feet; 
thickness at the base, 25 feet, and at the top, 15 feet. 

14. The big trees (redwoods) of Calaveras County, 
California, are niney-two in number, ten being thirty feet 
in diameter. They range in height from 150 to 237 feet, 
and in age from 1,000 to 3,500 years. 

15. The largest theater in the world is the new Opera- 
house in Paris. It covers nearly three acres of ground; its 
cubic mass is 4,287,000 feet; it cost about 100,000,000 francs. 

16. The largest suspension bridge is the one between 
New York City and Brooklyn; the length of the main span 
is 1,595 ft., 6 in.; the entire length of the bridge is 5,980 ft. 

17. The loftiest active volcano is Popocatapetl — 
" smoking mountain " — thirty-five miles southwest of 
Puebla, Mexico; it is 17,748 feet above the sea level, and 
has a crater three miles in circumference, and 1,000 ft. deep. 

18. The longest span of wire in the world is used for 
a telegraph in India over the River Kistnah. It is more 
than 6,000 feet in length, and is 1,200 feet high. 

19. The largest ship in the world is the Great Eastern. 



PRACTICAL IJNiOKilATlOX ANSWERS. 317 

She is 680 feet long, 83 feet broad, and 60 feet deep, being 
28,627 tons burden, 18,915 gross, and 13,334 net register. 

20. The greatest fortress, from a strategical point of 
view, is the famous stronghold of Gibraltar. It occupies 
a rocky peninsula jutting out into the sea, about three miles 
long and three-quarters of a mile wide. One central rock 
rises to a height of 1,435 feet above the sea level. Its 
northern face is almost perpendicular, while its east side is 
full of tremendous precipices. On the south it terminates 
in what is called Europa Point. The west side is less 
steep than the east, and between its base and the sea is the 
narrow, almost level span on which the town of Gibraltar 
is built. The fortress is considered impregnable to 
military assault. The regular garrison in time of peace 
numbers about 7,000. 

21. The largest library is the Bibliotheque National, 
in Paris, founded by Louis XIV. It contains 1,400,000 
volumes, 300,000 pamphlets, 175,000 manuscripts, 300,000 
maps and charts, and 150,000 coins and medals. The col- 
lection of engravings exceeds 1,300,000, contained in some 
10,000 volumes. The portraits number about 100,000. 

22. The largest desert is that of Sahara, a vast region 
of Northern Africa, extending from the Atlantic Ocean 
on the west to the valley of the Nile on the east. The 
length from east to west is about 3,000 miles, its average 
breath about 900 miles, its area about 2,000,000 square 
miles. Rain falls in torrents in the Sahara at intervals of 
five, ten and twenty years. In summer the heat during 
the day is excessive, but the nights are often cold. In 
winter the temperature is sometimes below freezing point. 

23. The greatest pyramid is that of Cheops, one of the 
three pyramids forming the Memphis group, situated on 
a plateau about 137 feet above the level of the highest 
rise in the Nile. Its dimensions have been reduced by 
the removal of the outer portions to furnish stone for the 
City of Cairo. Its masonry consisted originally of 



318 THE examiner's companion. 

89,028,000 cubic feet, and still amounts to 82,1 11,000 feet. 
The present vertical height is 450 feet, against 479 feet 
originally. The total weight of the stone is estimated at 
6,316,000 tons. 

24. The largest bell in the world is the great bell of Mos- 
cow, at the foot of the Kremlin. Its circumference at the 
bottom is nearly sixty-eight feet, and its height more than 
twenty-one feet. In its stoutest part it is twenty-three 
inches thick, and its weight has been computed to be 443,- 
722 pounds. It has never been hung. 

25. There are some 130 periodicals issued weekly, 
semi-monthly, or monthly, on religion, government, reg- 
ulations, politics, laws, army and navy, agriculture, trade 
and commerce, shipping and navigation, literature, educa- 
tion, science, fine arts, medicines, etc., in Japan. 

26. It is a peculiarity of the Japanese daily newspapers 
that in each of them the editorial article is made about the 
same length every day. In some papers it covers a col- 
umn and a half, while in others it is longer. One edito- 
rial is published in each number, and it is only in very rare 
cases that two or more editorials are printed. 

27. Jumbo, the famous elephant, was bought from a 
wandering band of Arabs — according to Sir Samuel Baker 
— when four years of age. Then was brought to the Jar- 
din des Plantes, Paris, from there he was transferred to 
the London Zoological Gardens, in 1866, and remained 
there until purchased by Barnum, Bailey and Hutchinson, 
in 1882. He was killed by a locomotive at Ontario, Can- 
ada, in 1885. 

28. The largest stake ever rowed for was $6,000, in the 
four-oared race for the championship, between the Samuel 
Collyer and the Floyd T. Field, at Poughkeepsie, N. Y., 
July 18, 1865, and won by the Samuel Collyer, The crew 
of the latter were Denny Leary and the Biglin brothers, 
while Stevens, Wooden, Burger and Benway rowed the 
Floyd T. Field, 



PRACTICAL INFORMATION ANSWERS. 319 

29. The greatest billiard match ever played in America 
was 2,000 points up, four caroms, for $10,000, between 
Phelan and Sweereiter, at Detroit, Mich., on April 12, 1859, 
Phelan was the winner, scoring 2,001 points to his oppo- 
nent's 1,994. 

30. The fastest time made by a steamer from New 
York to New Orleans was made by the Louisiana. On 
March 7, 1885, at 4:45 P. M. she left Pier 9, passing Sandy 
Hook at 5:50. and arrived at New Orleans, La., on March 
13, 1885, at 2 P. M. She made the trip from wharf to 
wharf in 5 days, 9 hours and 15 minutes, and from bar to 
bar in a little less than five days. This is a little faster than 
the former rapid passage of this steamer, and is the quickest 
time ever made between New York and New Orleans. 

31. The Savannah was the first steam-propelled vessel 
that crossed the Atlantic. She was American built, 380 
tons burden, and in 1819 sailed first to Savannah from 
New York, thence direct to Liverpool, where she- arrived 
in eighteen days, seven of which she used steam. From Liv- 
erpool she proceeded to Copenhagen, and to St. Petersburg, 

32. A coffer containing the golden pot of manna, with 
Aaron's rod and the tables of the covenant placed under 
the mercy-seat, and serving as the centre of the religious 
worship of the Jews. It was either carried to Babylon, or 
destroyed on the capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. 

33. Ash-Wednesday is the first day of Lent; so called 
from a custom in the Roman Catholic church of sprinkling 
ashes, that day, on the heads of penitents, then admitted 
to penance. The ceremony is said to have been introduced 
into the church by Pope Gregory, the Great. 

34. Bacchus, the God of wine, and the same as the 
Greek Dionysus, was a son of Jupiter and Semele, or, 
according to other accounts, of Amnion, King of Libya, 
and of Araalthea. Pie is usually represented as an effemi- 
nate young man crowned with vine and ivy-leaves, with a 
thyrsus in bis hand. 



320 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

35. One of the greatest wonders of the vegetable king- 
dom, the Ficus Indica (see Ficus), a tree growing in India. 
Every branch shoots downward, and striking into the ground, 
takes root, and is then capable of becoming a distinct tree. 
One of them, the Cubbeer Burr, has 350 stems, equal to 
large oaks, and more than 3,000 small ones, covering a space 
for sheltering 7,000 persons. Its branches are crowded with 
families of monkeys, and with birds of every description, 
and also with enormous bats, all of which find luxurious 
subsistence upon the rich scarlet figs that grow upon it. 

36. An ancient mode of trial by single combat. The 
contest took place before the judges on a piece of ground 
inclosed, and the combatants were bound to fight until the 
stars appeared, unless the death of one party sooner decided 
the contest. It is but in comparatively late years that this 
barbarous practice was abolished in England. 

37. "The Prince of the Devils," Matt. xii. 24. An 
appellation given by the Jews to Satan, as being the orig- 
inator of all pollutions and abominations of idol-worship. 

38. A pestilence which in the 14th century swept away 
one-quarter of the population of the Old World within 4 
years (1347-1350). Altogether it is estimated that 25,000,- 
000 died from it in Europe alone. It originated in the 
East, and being attended with the breaking out of black 
spots over the body, it received the above name. 

39. It is a disease of the kidneys, so called after the 
English Dr. Bright, who first investigated it in 1827, and 
characterized by the presence of albumen in the urine in 
more or less abundance, and general dropsy. This affec- 
tion, when acute, is not devoid of a certain amount of dan- 
ger, but, in a large proportion of cases, it ends in com- 
plete recovery; when chronic, it involves irremediable 
structural lesions, and sooner or later ends fatally. 

40. A terra applied, in the southern pai't of the United 
States, to a certain class of Northern immigrants, espe- 
cially to those desiring political preferment. 



PRACTICAL INFORMATION ANSWERS. 321' 

41. A design drawn upon large sheets of paper for the 
purpose of being traced upon any other material, on which 
the subject is to be executed. The most celebrated car- 
toons in existence are those of Raphael. 

42. Catgut is the name given to the strings made from 
the dried and twisted peritoneal coverings of the intes- 
tines of sheep and other animals. They are used for musical 
instruments, for lathe-bands, whips, bows, etc., and are 
largely manufactured at Lyon, Milan, and other cities. 

43. A little rodent animal which inhabits the mountain 
regions of Chili and Peru. It is rarely larger than a rat, 
has a short tail, and is covered with ashen-colored fur of 
the finest and softest quality, and extensively used for 
muffs, tippets, linings of cloaks, trimmings, etc. 

44. Christmas is the festival of the birth of Christ, 
annually commemorated on the 25th day of December, 
which is called Christmas-day. The day is often cele- 
brated by a particular Church service. 

45. A clear cinnamon-brown colored var, of lime-gar- 
net, found in Ceylon, and much used for jewelry under 
the name of hyacinths. It is a silicate of alumina and lead. 

46. A voucher or certificate issued at the Custom-house 
in proof that a ship has cleared^ that is, has received official 
permission to proceed to sea on her intended voyage. 

47. The place where is carried on the operation of 
clearing off balances and adjusting daily accounts between 
bankers of the same city; thus avoiding the inconvenience 
of handling large amounts in currency or convertible 
paper. Each bank, or banker, dispatches a clerk to the 
clearing-house, who there draws up an abstract of the 
checks upon other firms; and effects a clearance by 
exchanging them against those drawn on the bank to 
which he belongs. The balance is paid over in cash. The 
first clearing-house in the United States was established in 
New York in 1833. In England, the railway companies, 
as well as the banks, make use of the clearing system. 

21 



322 THE examinee's COMPANION. 

48. It is an oil obtained from the liver of the cod, and 
which is in great repute for its remedial powers. It is 
used in the dose of a tablespoonf ul three or four times a day, 
in pulmonary phthisis, in various scrofulous affections, 
in chronic gout and rheumatism, and in some skin diseases. 

49. A fiscal code which formerly levied a duty on for- 
eign corn imported into England. It was repealed by Act 
of Parliament in 1849. 

50. The practice which prevailed throughout Europe 
in the Middle Ages, of ringing bells at sunset in summer, 
and about eight o'clock in winter, to warn the people to 
cover up their fires, and retire to rest. The object was 
to -prevent fires, which, owing to houses being chiefly 
composed of wood, were then both frequent and destruct- 
ive. The custom still prevails in some parts of England. 

51. A language which is no longer spoken or in com- 
mon use by a people, and is known only in writings; as the 
Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. 

52. It is a name applied to several tribes of miserable 
and degraded Indians in Oregon and California, who sub- 
sist on roots which they dig out of the earth, and on insects, 
lizards, etc. They are believed to be the lowest grade of 
humanity upon earth. 

53. The Dismal Swamp, in North Carolina, and Vir- 
ginia, is, as its name indicates, a swamp, or morass, cover- 
ing an area of about 300 square miles. It is 30 miles in 
length. North to South, and 12 in width. In its centre is 
Lake Drummond, about six miles in circuit. Much of the 
heavy timber which formerly made this region an immense 
forest, has been cut down, and a portion of the surface 
drained and laid under crops. The Dismal Swamp was, 
in olden days, the haunt of runaway negroes and lawless 
characters generally. 

54. A church festival commemorating Christ's resur- 
rection, and occurring on Sunday, the second day after 
Good Friday. It corresponds to the pascha or passover 



PRACTICAL INFORMATION ANSWERS. 323 

of the Jews, and most nations still give it this name under 
the various forms oi pa6cha,pasque,paque ox pash. 

55. Easter-day, on which the rest of the movable feasts 
depend, is always the first Sunday after the fourteenth day 
of the calendar moon which happens upon or next after 
the 21st of March, according to the rules laid down for 
the construction of the calendar; so that if the fourteenth 
day happens on a Sunday, Easter day is the Sunday after. 

56. Those branches of science, the deductions in which 
are founded on experiment, as contrasted with the moral, 
mathematical, and speculative departments of knowledge. 
The principal experimental science is chemistry; but there 
are many others, as Optics, Pneumatics, Hydrostatics, 
Electricity, Magnetism, etc. 

57. The title given to the scene of the interview held 
between Henry VIII. of England, and Francis I. of 
France, near Calais, June 7-24, 1520: — so named on 
account of the extraordinary pomp and magnificence dis- 
played on both sides on the occasion. 

58. A cross of fire, formed by lighted brands, and for- 
merly used by the Scots Highlanders to rally the clansmen 
in time of invasion, etc. An admirable description of the 
Fiery Cross is given in Sir Walter Scott's Lady of the Lake. 

59. A clique of political fanatics who sided with Crom- 
well during the Protectorate. They derived their epithet 
from their entertaining a belief that Cromwell's accession 
to supreme power was a manifestation of the advent of the 
fifth monarchy, in which the Savior should reign with the 
saints on earth for the period of one thousand years. 

60. Before the gas is consumed it is usually passed 
through an instrument called a metet^ in order to ascertain 
the number of cubic feet which are used in a given time, 
or in a particular place. The instrument is filled with 
fluid up to a certain height through an orifice in the side 
of the vessel, in which a plug is fitted. The gas enters by 
a pipe at one side, escapes from an orifice into a pipe at 



324: THE examiner's COMPANION. 

the other, and is thence conveyed to the burners. By 
means of a train of wheel-work in connection with the 
axis of the drum, an index is turned, which points out on 
the index-plate how many cubic feet have passed through. 

61. The Giant's Causeway, on the north coast of Ire- 
land, County Antrim, is the name given to a remarkable 
and phenomenal series of basaltic formations, constituting 
a natural platform, 600 feet long, 25 feet high, and 350 
feet broad, of closely arranged columns, for the most part 
representing hexagonal or polygon prisms of short uneven 
lengths piled in vertical order. Its name is derived from 
the popular tradition that giants constructed it with an 
intention to cross by it over to Scotland. 

62. The Friday before Easter-Day, observed from the 
earliest times of the Christian Church, as a day of fasting 
and religious observance, in memory of the Crucifixion of 
the Saviour. 

63. The custom of any business or trade. Under some 
circumstances it has a very great pecuniary value, and is 
often bought and sold, and made the subject of arrange- 
ment in various ways. Along with transferring it, the 
seller binds himself to do every thing in his power to 
recommend his successor, and promote his interests in 
such business. If the seller acts contrary to such agree- 
ment, he is liable to an action. 

64. A knot made by Gordius, king of Phrygia, so 
intricate that there was no finding where it began or 
ended. An oracle had declared that he who should un- 
fasten this knot would become master of Asia. Alexander 
the Great having undertaken the task, and apprehensive 
that his inability to untie it might prove an evil omen, cut 
it asunder with his sword, and thus either accomplished or 
evaded it; — hence, among the moderns, to cut the Gordian 
Knot is a phrase used as significatory of a difficulty got 
over or removed by bold or unusual means. 

65. A village of Scotland, 27 miles S. E. of Dumfries, 



PRACTICAL INFORMATION — ANSWERS. 325 

and a fcAv miles from the English border. It was formerly 
celebrated for the solemnization of irregular marriages 
contracted by runaway English couples, who traveled thus 
far on account of the superior facilities afforded them, by 
reason of the greater laxity and simplicity of the Scottish 
marriage laws. 

66. A festival observed in the Roman Catholic Church 
on the 14th of Sept., in remembrance of the exaltation of 
the Cross. 

67. In the Roman Catholic and Greek churches, water 
which has been consecrated by prayers and other ceremo- 
nies, and is used for sprinkling the faithful and the sacred 
utensils. It is contained in a particular kind of font at 
the door of the church, and also within them at certain 
places; and from them the worshipers sprinkle themselves 
before prayer. 

68. Literally, " The Valley of the Judgment of God," 
a name given to the valley of the Kidron (q. v.), both 
Jews and Mohammedans believing that it is to be the 
scene of the last judgment. The use of this appellation has 
not been traced higher than the 4th century after Christ. 

69. A general terra for the editorial and i-eportorial 
conduct of public newspapers; in other words, it desig- 
nates that branch of literature which treats of and narrates 
public events. 

70. The name of two canonical books of the Old Tes- 
tament, so called because they contain the history of the 
kings of Israel and Judah, from the beginning of the 
reign of Solomon down to the Babylonish captivity, for 
the space of nearly 600 years. 

71. The cant appellation under which was formerly 
known a political faction in the United States, which was 
inimical to the naturalization and adoption of foreigners as 
American citizens, and which also entertained principles 
of strong political hostility to the Roman Catholics. The 
name arose from the circumstance that its members were 



326 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

wont to answer, " I don't know," when interrogated as to 
the views and intentions of the party they belonged to. 

72. The name assumed by an organized coinmunity of 
political desperadoes, which, since the termination of the 
Civil War, has committed numerous acts of wanton outrage. 

73. The 25th of March, so called because it is the anni- 
versary of the annunciation of the Virgin Mary. 

74. The fourth Sunday of Lent, so named from the 
first word of the Introit in the Mass, which is from Isaiah 
Ixvi. 10. It is also called Mid-lent. 

75. A festival celebrated on the first of August by the 
Roman Catholic Church, in memory of St. Peter's impris- 
onment. This word has been derived from Larnh'tnass^ 
on account of the custom, observed in some places, of 
bringing a lamb alive into the church on this day during 
mass; also from Loaf -mass, considering it a thanksgiving 
day for the first-fruits of the corn, etc. 

76. One, perhaps the youngest, of a family at Bethany 
whom Jesus loved. He died, and was buried, and was 
restored to life by Christ's almighty power, after having 
been in the grave four days. 

77. The forty days' fast, beginning on Ash Wednes- 
day, and continuing till Easter in the Roman Catholic and 
Anglican churches. 

78. The name given to a session of the English Par- 
liament which sat for the unprecedented period of 13 
years — 1640 — 53, — until its final dissolution by Cromwell. 
During its existence occurred the civil war, the death of 
Charles I., and the inauguration of a brief republican form 
of government. 

79. Among the Methodists, a kind of socio-religious meet- 
ing held periodically for the encouragement of harmony 
and kindly feeling among the members of their persuasion. 

80. A term applied to the Roman from the beginning 
of its decline after the death of Constantine, till its fall; 
and more especially to the Eastern or Greek empire. 



PRACTICAL INFORMATION ANSWERS. 327 

81. The first day of the year; the day on which the 
year commences; the first day of January; — often colloqui- 
ally abbreviated to new-year's or new-year. The social 
observances of the first day of the New Year appear to 
have been in substance the same in all ages. 

82. An institution where teachers are instructed in the 
principles of their profession, and trained in the practice of 
it. The first Normal School was organized at Stettin, in 
Prussia, in 1735; the first in the United States was opened 
at Lexington, July 3, 1839, and now most of the principal 
cities in this country have their Normal Schools. 

83. The appellation given by the Irish Roman Cath" 
olics to those of their countrymen who supported William 
III. It has since designated the members of an association 
instituted in Ireland, in 1795, to uphold the ascendency of 
the Protestant religion, and notorious for its hostility 
towards the Roman Catholic Church. 

84. The next Sunday before Easter being the sixth in 
Lent. In the Roman Catholic Church, it is observed as 
a festival in commemoration of Christ's triumphal entry 
into Jerusalem, when palm-branches were strewn on the 
way. 

85. The very pretty hard-wood of certain South Amer- 
ican and West Indian trees, one of which is supposed to 
be Andira Inermis. It is usually of a reddish color, in 
various shades from light to dai'k, the shades being mingled 
in thin streaks. Its chief use is for cabinet-work. 

86. A bell that is tolled immediately after a person's 
death; it was originally called the soul-bell, because formerly 
superstitiously sounded to drive away any evil spirit that 
might seek to take possession of the soul of the moribund. 

87. A solemn festival of the Jews, celebrated on the 
14th day of the month following the vernal equinox; and 
instituted in commemoration of their providential deliv- 
erance on the night before their departure from Egypt, 
when the destroying angel, who put to death the first-born 



328 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

of the Egyptians, joassecZ over those houses of the Hebrews 
which were sprinkled with the blood of a lamb. 

88. An Irish order of knighthood, instituted by George 
III., in 1783, being the only one belonging to Ireland. It 
consists of the sovereign, a prince of the blood, a grand- 
master (the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland for the time being), 
and twenty-two knights. 

89. Peter the Hermit was a French monk, born at 
Amiens about the middle of the eleventh century. During 
a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, in 1094, he there witnessed 
such indignities offered to the pilgrims, that on his return 
he prevailed upon Pope Urban II., to sanction his 
preaching a crusade against the Infidels. He died in 1115. 

90. A new art, invented recently, by M. Willeme, 
a Frenchman. It consists in taking likenesses in the 
form of statuettes and medallions by the aid of photography, 
and a very ingenious series of accessory contrivances. A 
building specially adopted for the purpose is absolutely 
necessary for the successful accomplishment of the process. 

91. Political economy is that branch of philosophy 
which discusses the sources and methods of material 
wealth and prosperity in a nation. 

92. The name formerly given to the new province of 
Manitoba, a large extent of still little-known territory, 
lying North of the dividing line between Dakota Territory 
and the State of Minnesota, at the foot of Lake Winnipeg, 
and on both sides of the Red River of the North. 

93. The Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday imme- 
diately preceding Ascension-Day: — so named from being 
times of supplication; — the week in which such days 
occur, that is the second before Whit-Sunday, takes the 
title of Rofjation 'Week. 

94. An East Indian wood of a close and hard grain, 
beautifully veined, and of a reddish-orange color. It is 
imported in logs of from 9 to 14 inches in diameter, and is 
much used by cabinet-makers, upholsterers, etc. 



PRACTICAX, INFOKMATION ANSWERS. 329 

95. A celebrated set of tables which have served 
greatly to promote our knowledge of astronomy. They 
were constructed by Kepler, and named in honor of the 
Emperor Rodolph (Rudolph) II., who defrayed the cost 
of their compilation. They appeared in 1627, and were 
the first ever calculated in the hypothesis that the planets 
move in elliptical orbits. 

96. A festival in the Roman Catholic Church, held on 
the Friday after the octave of Corpus Christi. It derives 
from a vision which is said to have befallen a certain 
French nun of the Order of the Visitation, in the l7th 
century, and which inspired her to perform a special devo- 
tion to the Heart of the Saviour. 

97. The name "given to a large tract of water many 
hundred miles in extent, in the middle of the Atlantic 
Ocean, and West of the Canary and Cape Verd Islands. 
It is habitually calm, and covered with floating sea-weed 
[SargassvTn Bacciferum) — whence its name. This vast 
oceanic meadow— the home of myriads of small crustaceans, 
and minute orgaiitsms — is avoided by navigators. Colum- 
bus was the first to sail across it, and he imagined himself to 
be near land, upon viewing such evidences of vegetation. 

98. A religious denomination which, in the United 
States, originated at Newport R. I., in 1671. They differ 
from other Baptists only by the observance of the seventh 
instead of the first day of the week as the Sabbath. They 
are known in England as Sabbatarians. 

99. The name by which is known in history the sangui- 
nary war carried on between Frederick II. of Prussia and 
the Emperor of Austria, 1756-63. England was the ally 
of the former; and Germany, France, Russia, and Sweden 
for sometime assisted the Austrians. It resulted in the 
cession of Silesia to Prussia, and was terminated by the 
Treaty of Hubertsburg, Feb. 15, 1763. 

100. The Tuesday after Quinquagesima Sunday, or the 
day immediately preceding the first of Lent; being so called 



330 THE examiner's companion. 

because tlie Roman Catholic Church enjoins confession to 
be made on that day in preparation for the feast of Lent. 

101. A religious community of females, founded by 
St. Vincent de Paul, in France, 1617. They have since 
spread their organized system of beneficent usefulness 
nearly all over the world; there being upwards of 60 
houses of them in the United States alone. They devote 
their whole time to acts of active charity and philanthropy, 
such as succoring the indigent, visiting the sick, and 
the like, and are credited with doing an immeasurable 
amount of good. The American branch of the Congre- 
gation was established at Emmettsburg, Md., in 1809. 

102. A court of criminal jurisdiction formerly held at 
Westminster, and so named from 'its ceiling being decor- 
ated with gilt stars. This court took upon itself to decide 
upon those cases of offence with regard to which the law 
was silent, admitting for law the proclamations of the 
king in council. This court became eventually an instru- 
ment so despotic and unconstitutional in its proceedings, 
as to bring it into popular odium, and Charles I. was com- 
pelled to abolish it by special Act of Parliament. 

103. The name given to works of art formed of baked 
clay. Ancient specimens of Terra Cotta work of admir- 
able design have been discovered in Tuscany and Rome. 
They consist of lamps and vessels of various kinds, besides 
entire figures and reliefs, 

104. A combination or confederacy entered into by the 
operatives of a particular branch of manufacture, for the 
purpose of regulating the scale of wages, duration of period 
of labor, etc., and, generally, for protecting the interests 
of the workmen from injury or aggression on the part of 
employers. 

105. A suspension of hostilities, often proclaimed dur- 
ing the Middle Ages, on the authority of the church. It 
afforded an interval of peace amid those private hostilities 
in which every petty baron believed it his right to engage. 



PRACTICAL INFORMATION ANSWERS. 331 

106. The name of apolitical organization formed dur- 
ing the Civil War in certain Northern cities, New York, 
Philadelphia, etc., for affording pecuniary and other sup- 
port for the maintenance of the National cause. 

107. St. Valentine's day, a day sacred to St. Valentine; 
the 14th of February. It was a very old notion, alluded 
to by Shakespeare, that on this day birds begin to couple. 
Hence, perhaps, arose the custom of sending on this day 
letters containing professions of love and affection. 

108 An affection consisting of a hot sensation in the 
stomach, with eructations of an acrid, burning liquid, that 
causes a distressing sensation in the part over which it 
passes. Attention to diet, and the use of bitter absorbents, 
will usually relieve, when the disease is functional. Occa- 
sonally, it is symptomatic of organic disease of the stomach. 

109. A secret body of political marauders which created 
alarm in the South of Ireland towards the close of the last 
and beginning of the present century. They committed 
agrarian and other outrages in the dead of night, or before 
daybreak, and wore white smocks over their clothes: — 
whence the name. 

110. A very curious art, by which, with the aid of 
steam, water, or some other power, wire is drawn through 
orifices successively smaller. Wire may thus be reduced 
from an inch to the 1000th of an inch in diameter, and 
gold has been made the 4000th of an inch in diameter. A 
single grain of gold admits of being drawn out easily into 
a wire 100 yards long. That property of metals by which 
they submit to this operation without breaking is called 
their ductility. 



Mental Arithmetic. 




QUESTIONS. 



1. A boy bought a ball for 6 cents; for how much 
must he sell it to gain 4 cents? 

2. Frank killed 2 quails, and Samuel killed 1 quail; 
how many quails did both kill? 

3. Gave Y cents for a spool of thread, and 4 cents for 
a lemon; how much more did the thread cost than the 
lemon? 

4. Sold a firkin of butter for $10, a cheese for $5, 
and received in part payment a barrel of flour worth $6; 
how much remains due? 

5. A woman bought 11 yards of cloth, and paid for 
it with butter, giving 9 pounds for a yard; how many 
pounds of butter did it take to pay for the cloth? How 
much did the cloth cost, provided the butter was worth 10 
cents a pound? 

6.- If I earn $12 a month, and pay 25 cents a week 
for washing, and $2 a week for board, how much will I 
have at the end of 40 weeks (10 months)? 

7, A man bought a horse for $80, paid $2 a week for 
his keeping,' and received $4 a week for his work; at the 
expiration of 10 weeks he sold him for $70 dollars; how 
much did he gain? 

(332) 



MENTA.L ARITHMETIC QUESTIONS. 333 

8. Two men are 50 miles ajiart, and approach each 
other, one at the rate of 2 miles an hour, the other, 3 miles 
an hour; how far apart will they be at the end of 5 hours? 

9. Albert has 9 marbles, Aaron 3 times as many, less 
7, and Amos has twice as many as both, less 8; how many 
has each, and how many have they together? 

10. When beef is 5 cts. a pound, and pork 9 cts., how 
much more will 9 pounds of pork cost than 9 j^ounds of beef? 

11. If 10 men accomplish a certain piece of work iu 2 
days, how long will it take 1 man to do the same? 

12. If 4 men can do a piece of work in 12 days, in 
how many days can 3 men do the same work? 

13. If 2 apples are worth 1 orange, and 2 oranges are 
worth 1 lemon; how many lemons can be bought for 48 
apples? 

14. A merchant bought a hogshead of molasses for $20, 
and sold it at the rate of 15 cents for 3 pints; how much 
did he gain by the bargain? 

15. A man being asked the cost of his hat, replied, 
two-thirds of $30, is 4 times its cost; required its cost. 

16. John had |120; one-third of it he spent for a 
watch, one-fourth of it for a suit of clothes, and thi'ee- 
tenths of it for a sleigh; how much had he remaining? 

17. A gentleman, being asked his age, answered that 
his youngest son's age, which was 12 years, was just one- 
twelfth or 3 times his age; required the father's age. 

18. Twelve is two-thirds of what number? 

19. A piece of cloth containing 12 yards was sold for 
$60, which was five-fourths of the cost; how much did it 
cost, and what was the gain on each yard? 

20. A man gave $60 for a suit of clothes, which 
was ^ of his yearly income; J- of the remainder he spent for 
a watch, and what then remained was -| of his brother's 
yearly income. What was the yearly income of each? 

21. How many pounds of meat, at 5 cents a pound, can 
you buy for $3|? 



334 THE examinee's companion. 

22. If a certain quantity of provision serve a family of 4 
persons 1 6 days, how long would it last a family of 8 persons ? 

23. Bought 36 yards of cloth, and sold -| of it for $25, 
which was ^ of what it cost; how much would I have gained 
by selling the whole at the same rate? 

24. If 2 chestnuts are worth ^\ of a cent, and 20 chestnuts 
are worth |^ of a lemon, how many cents is 1 lemon worth? 

25. How many chestnuts will pay for 9 walnuts, if 1 
chestnuts are worth 10| walnuts? 

26. If 6 orifices fill a vessel in 3|^ hours, how many of 
the same size will be required to fill it in yig- of an hour? 

27. A fox is 40 rods before a hound, and runs 3 rods to 
the hound 5; how many rods must the hound run to 
overtake the fox? How far did the fox run? 

28. If a pole 8 feet long casts a shadow 4| feet, what 
will be the length of the shadow of a pole which is 15 feet 
long, at the same time of day? 

29. At a certain time of day, a pole 5 feet long casts a 
shadow 7-^ feet; what is the length of that pole which at 
the same time casts a shadow 4^ feet? 

30. Three-eighths of an army was killed, ^ taken prison- 
ers, and 500 escaped; how many were there in the army? 

31. A farmer, having lost 12 sheep, had only ^ of his 
flock remaining; how many sheep had he left? 

32. Twelve is ^ of what number? 

33. The articles contained in a certain store cost |500, 
and ^ of their cost is | of three times the amount paid for 
the silks; how much was the cost of the silks and of the 
other articles respectively? 

34. If 1 horse eat ^ of a bushel of oats in 1 day, how 
many horses will eat a bushel in the same time? 

35. If 4 horses eat 16 bushels of grain in 2 days, how 
many bushels will 3 horses eat in 12 days? 

36. How many men will be required to earn 20 dimes 
in 4 days, if 4 men in 2|- days earn 11 dimes? 

37. If it require 6 days for 2 men to lay 36 rods of wall, 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC QUESTIONS. 33A 

how many men can in ^ of the time build 72 rods of simi- 
lar wall? 

38. If 2 men in J of a day earn ^ of a dollar, in how 
many days can 3 men earn | of a dollar? 

39. If it require i of a bushel of oats to feed 4 horses 
^ of a day, how many horses would it require to consume 
9 bushels in | of a day? 

40. A. and B. were playing cards, A. lost $20, which 
was -^ of the number of dollars B. then had more than A.; 
provided this sum was \^ times as much as A. had at first, 
how much had each when they began to play? 

41. Frank had stolen from him |- of his money; the 
thief was not caught until he had spent ^ of all he had stolen; 
the remainder, which was |40 less than Frank had remain- 
ing, was given back; how much money had Frank at first? 

42. Two men hired a pasture for $72; one put in 7 
horses, and the other 2 horses; what ought each to pay? 

43. A. and B. hired a pasture for $24; A. put in 4 sheep 
for 10 weeks, and B. put in 2 horses for 10 weeks; what 
ought each to pay, provided 2 sheep in 1 week eat as much 
as a horse in the same time? 

44. A gentleman bought a watch and chain for $80; 
the chain cost \ as much as the watch; and what was the 
cost of each? 

45 James bought 54 oranges; for | of them he paid 2 
cents for 3, and for the remainder, 3 cents for 2; and sold 
^ of them, at the rate of 2 cents for 3, and the remainder, 
at 3 cents for 2. How much did he gain by so doing? 

4(3. If C. and D. can, in 1 day, mow j% of a field, how 
long would it take them to mow the whole field? 

47. A. and B. can build a boat in 20 days, and with the 
assistance of C, they can build it in 8 days. How long 
would it take C. to build it alone? 

48. Three pipes. A, B and C, can fill a cistern in 2 
hours, A and B can fill it in 4 hours, and A and C can 
fill it in 3 hours. How long would it take each to fill it? 



336 THE examinee's companion. 

49. A., B., and C. can "build a boat in 20 days, A. and 
B., in 40 days, and A. and C, in 30 days. How long would 
it take each separately to build it? 

50. A. can do a certain piece of work in 4-^ days, and 

A. and B. together in 3 days. After A. did ^ of the work, 

B. did the remainder; how long did it take him? 

51. If a wolf can eat a sheep in i of an hour, and a 
bear can eat it in | of an hour, how long would it take them 
together to eat what remained of a sheep after the wolf 
had been eating ^ of an hour? 

52. A., B., and C, talking of their ages; says A. to B., 
I am 4 times as old as you; says B. to C, I am ^ as old as 
you; but says A. to C, I am 40 years older than you. 
Required the age of each. 

53. A man agreed to work 60 days on this condition: 
that for every day he worked he should receive $1^, and 
for every day he was idle he should pay $1 for his board. 
At the expiration of the time, he received $68. How 
many days did he work? 

54. A ship-mast 51 feet in length, was broken off in a 
storm, and | of the length broken off, equaled | of the 
length remaining; how much was broken Off, and how 
much remained? 

55. The sura of two numbers is 176, and | of the first 
-f-4 equals f of the second; required the numbers. 

66. A person, being asked the hour of the day, replied, 
■| of the time past noon equals | of the time from now to 
midnight-|-2| hours; what was the time? 

67. A pole, the length of which is 78 feet, is in the air 
and water; f of the length in the air+12 feet, equals 1| 
times the length in the water; what is the length in the 
air and water, respectively? 

58. The head of a fish is 12 inches long; its tail is 10 
inches longer than its head increased by \ the length of 
the body, and its body is 20 inches longer than its head 
and tail together; what is the length of the fish? 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC — QUESTIONS. 337 

59. Samuel is 20 years old, and Eugene is 4 years old; 
in how many years will Samuel, who is now 5 times as old 
as Eugene, be only twice as old? 

60. When A. was married, he was 3 times the age of 
his wife, but 15 years after their marriage his age was only 
twice her age; how old was each when they were married? 

61. When I first met Mr. A., I was \ as old as he was, 
and in 12 years after that I was | as old as he was; what 

■ was each of our ages when we first met? 

62. A hound takes 3 leaps to a fox 4, and 3 of the 
hound's leaps are equal to 6 of the fox's; how many leaps 
must the hound take to gain 1 on the fox? 

63. Alfred is 60 steps before Silas, and takes 9 steps to 
Silas' 6; and 3 of Silas' steps equal 7 of Alfred's. How many 
steps, at this rate, will each take before they will be together? 

64. A boy bought a certain number of lemons, at 2 
cents each, as many more at 4 cents each; and sold them at 
the rate of 3 for 5 cents; did he gain or lose, and how much? 

65. A woman bought a certain number of apples, at 
the rate of 2 for a cent, as many more at the rate of 3 for a 
cent; and sold them all at the rate of 5 for 2 cents, and by 
so doing, lost 4 cents. How many of each kind did she buy? 

Y' 66. A merchant bought a number of yards of cloth, at 

^the rate of 2 yai'ds for |1, and as many more, at the rate of 

5 yards for $1 ; and sold all the cloth at the rate of 1 yards 

for $3; and thereby lost $8. How many yards did he buy? 

67. A lady bought a certain number of eggs, at the 
rate of 3 for a cent, as many more at 4 for a cent; and sold 
them out at the rate of 8 for 3 cents, and by so doing, 
gained 4 cents. How many eggs did she buy? 

68. Three men agreed to share |510 in the proportion 
of -|, 1^, and {; how much must each receive? 

69. A. and B. started from the same point, and ran in 
the same direction; B. ran 60 rods; then ^j of the distance 
A. had run equaled the distance A. was ahead of B. How 
much did A. gain on B. in running GO rods? 

22 



338 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

70. Two-thirds of A's number of sheep-j-f of B's num- 
ber, equals 900; how many sheep has each, provided | of 
B's number is twice f of A's number? 

Vl. A. and B. dug 100 rods of ditch for |100, A. 
received 10 shillings a rod, and B. 6 shillings a rod. How 
many rods did each dig, provided each received $50? 

72. If the money B. paid for a sheep, a cow, and a 
horse, was put on interest for 4 years and 6 months at 4 
% it would give $18 interest. What was the cost of all, 
and of each, provided the sheep cost ^ as much as the cow, 
and the cow, -1^ as much as the horse? 

73. Jane, being asked how much money she had on 
interest, and at what % replied; the princi2:)al and rate 
% are such that in 5 years the amount would be $750, and 
in 7 years, $810. What was the principal and the rate % ? 

74. A man sold two horses for $240, losing on the first 
20 %, gaining on the other 20%; what was the value 
of each horse, provided he received for the second 3 times 
as much as for the first? 

75. The amount of Frank's capital for a certain time, 
at 4%, was $360, and for the same time, at 7%, it was 
$405; required his principal and the time. 

76. In what time will $40, at 6 %, give $12 interest 

77. At what rate %, will $50, in 1 year and 6 months 
(or 1-^ years), give $6 interest? 

78. At what rate %, will the interest for 20 years 
equal a given principal? 

79. In what time will a given principal double itself, 
at 5 % ? 

80. David bought a bushel of grass-seed for $5, and 
sold it for $7; what was his gain % ? 

81. A butcher bought a steer for $20; for what must 
he sell him, to gain 5 % ? 

82. What principal will, in 4 yrs., at 5 % ; amount to $60? 

83. If I sell cloth at $2.50 a yard, and thereby gain 
25 %, what did it cost a yard? 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC — QUESTIONS. 339 

84. A horse was sold for |38, which was at a loss of 
5%; what did the horse cost? 

85. If I sell cloth at $2,50 a yard, and thereby gain 
25%, how must I sell it a yard to lose 20%? 

86. An individual was orderd to collect 1 190, and his 
OAvn fee, which was to be five % on all the money col- 
lected. How much should he receive? 

87. The interest of the sum of i of Albert's, | of John's, 
and ^ of George's fortunes, for 3 years, 1 months, and 6 
days, at 10 %, is such as will in the same time, at ^ the 
rate %, amount to $531. What is the fortune of each, 
provided 1-^ times George's part of the principal equals 

1 of John's, ard -^ of John's uart of the principal equals 
^ of Albert's? 

88. The interest of the sum of i of A.'s, and | of B.'s 
fortune, for a certain time, at 2 %, was to this sum as 9 to 
250. And the amount of this interest for 25 times as 
long, at 10 times as great a %, was $180. What was each 
of their fortunes, provided A.'s fortune was to B.'s as 1 
to 3? And how long was the first on interest? 

89. Divide 28 into two numbers that shall be to each 
other as 5 to 2. 

90. A laborer in one week dug 5 rods more than ^ the 
length of a ditch, and the next week he dug the- remain- 
ing 20 rods; how long was the ditch? 

91. John and Orson have $55; ^ of John's money equals 
1^ of Orson's; how many dollars has each? 

92. Daniel, meeting some beggars, gave each of them 
5 cents; had he given them 7 cents apiece, it would have 
taken 8 cents more, how many beggai's were there? 

93. There were 26 apples stolen; -|- of the party get- 
ting 4 each, the rest 3 apiece, except 2, who obtained but 

2 apiece; how many were there in the party? 

94. Five times Andrew's age is 3 more than 4 times ^ 
of it increased by 6 times ^- of it; how old is he? 

95. Samuel paid $12.00 for 30 bushels of turnips, giving 



340 THE examitster's companion. 

fifty cents a bushel for good ones, and 20 cents a bushel 
for poor ones; how many bushels were good? 

96. The sum of 2 numbers is 27; their difference 5; 
what are the numbers? 

97. James, having some plums, gave ^ of them to 
Josej^h, who, after eating 6, gave | of what remained to 
his sister, and still had 5 left; how many had James? 

98. A rope 28 feet in length was broken so that ^ of 
the longer piece was equal to the shorter; what was the 
length of each piece? 

99. Arthur and Julius have 48 peaches; ~| of Arthur's, 
plus 6, equal the number Julius has; how many has each? 

100. Charles has 15 apples and plums; i of the apples 
equals ^ of the plums; how many of each has he? 

101. A person, being asked the time of day, replied, 
" The time past noon is equal to | of the time to midnight." 
What was the hour? 

102. A rojDe was cut into 3 pieces; the first piece 
was 5 feet long, the second was as long as the first plus 
1 of the third, and the third was as long as the other two; 
what was the length of the rope? 

103. Two pieces of cloth contain 38 yards; |- of the 
first piece equals f of the second, plus 4 yards; how many 
yards in each piece? 

104. Frank is 8 years of age, and Robert 25; in how 
many years will Frank be ^ as old as Robert? 

105. Ira played at marbles with Paul, who had 45; Ira 
won as many as he had to commence with; when they 
quit, each had the same number; how many had both? 

106. James has 10 sheep; Joseph has as many as 
James and | as many as Daniel, and Daniel has as many as 
James and Joseph; how many sheep have they all? 

107. The hour and minute hands of a watch are together 
at 12 o'clock; when will they next be together? 

108. A hound is in pursuit of a fox that is 10 rods 
ahead of him, and while the hound runs 10 rods the fox 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC QUESTIONS. 341 

runs i rod, (y". e.^ while tlie hound runs a certain distance, 
the fox runs ^^ of that distance). Will the hound overtake 
the fox? The conditions remaining the same, what is the 
greatest distance they can run? 

109. A boy was sent to a spring with a 5 and a 
3-quarJ, measure to procure exactly 4 quarts of water; how 
did he measure it? 

110. A hound is in pursuit of a fox that is 10 rods 
ahead of him, and while the fox runs 1 rod the hound 
runs 10 rods; how far will the hound run before he 
overtakes the fox? 

111. A man had 9 pigs, and put them in 4 pens, with an 
odd number of pigs in each pen; how did he divide them? 

112. If from six. you take IX, and from IX you take 
ten; and if fifty from forty be taken, there will then just 
half a dozen remain. 

1 1 3. Adolphus, Jane, and their mother, went to market. 
Adolphus had 60 apples, and sold them, at 2 for 1 cent; 
Jane had 60 apples, and sold them, at 3 for 1 cent. Their 
mother had 120 apples, and sold them, at the rate of 5 for 
2 cents. Which received the most, the children or the 
mother, and why? 

114. A man having a fox, a goose, and a peck of corn, 
was desirous of crossing a river. He could take only one 
across at a time, and if he left the fox and goose, while he . 
took the corn over, the fox would kill the goose; but if he 
left the goose and corn, the goose would eat the corn. 
How shall he get them all safely across the river? 

115. Place 10 pennies in a row, then carry 1 over 2, 
leaving it upon the third, and continue doing this until the 
10 pennies occupy only 5 places, with 2 in each place. 

116. A man purchased a hat for |5, and handed the 
merchant a |50 bill to pay for it; the merchant being 
unable to make the change, sent the bill to a broker, got 
it changed, and then gave the man who bought the hat |45. 
The broker, after the purchaser of the hat had gone, dis- 



342 



THE EXAMINER S COMPANION. 



covered that the bill was counterfeit, and, therefore, 
returned it to the merchant, and received $50 good money. 
Hovi^ much did the merchant lose by the operation? 

117. Might there be a cause, whereby the water of 
the Mississippi River would flow northward? 





Mental Arithmetic. 




ANSWERS. 



1. Since the ball cost him 6 cents, to gain 4 cents he 
must sell it for as many cents as the sum of 6-f-4 = 10. 10 
cents. 6+4 = 10. 

2. If Frank killed 2 quails and Samuel 1, they together 
killed 2 quails and 1 quail, which are 3 quails. 

3. The thread cost as much more than the lemon as 
the difference between 1 and 3. 7 — 3 = 4 = 4 cents. 

4. Since the butter and cheese were sold for $15 
(10-|-5), and since the flour received in part payment was 
worth $6, there remained unpaid as many dollars as the 
difference between 15 and 6. 10 + 5 = 15; 15 — 6 = 9. 

5. At 9 lbs. per yard, to pay for 11 yards it took 
11X9 = 99 lbs., which, at 10 cents per lb., was worth 
99X10 = 990 cents. 

6. If I pay $2.25 per week for board and washing, in 4 
weeks (or 1 month) they cost me 4 times $2.25 = $9; which, 
taken from $12, leaves me $3; and if I save $3 in 1 month, 
in 10 months I shall have 10 times $3 = |30. 

7. Since he paid |2 per week for his keeping, and 
received $4 per week, he gained thereby $2 per week; and 
in 10 weeks he gained 10 times $2, = $20, which added to 
$70, for which he sold him, = $90. $90 — $80 = $10, net gain. 

(343) 



344 THE examiner's COMPANION, 

8. Since they travel at the rate of 5 miles per hour 
(2-|-3 = 5), in 5 hours they approach each other 5x5 = 25 
(miles); and 50 — 25 = 25 (miles apart). 

9. Albert, 9 mar. 9X3 = 27; 27 — 7 = 20, (Aar.). 9+20 
= 29; 29X2 = 58; 58 — 8 = 50, (Amos). 9 + 20 + 50 = 79, (all). 

10. One lb. of pork costs 4 cents more than 1 lb. of 
beef; and 9 lbs. will cost 9x4 cents = 36 cents more than 
9 lbs. of beef. 

11. Since 10 men can do 10 days' work in 1 day, in 2 
days they can do 2 X 10 = 20 days' work; and since 1 man 
can do but 1 day's work in a day, it will take him 20 days 
to do the same work. 2 days X 10 = 20 days. 

12. Four men can do 4 days' work in 1 day, and in 12 
days (12 times 4) = 48 days' work. 3 men can do 3 days' 
work in 1 day; and to do 48 days' work they must work 
as many days as the number of times 3 is contained in 
48,= 16 (days). 

13. One lemon is worth 2 oranges, and each orange is 
worth 2 apples; therefore 1 lemon is worth 4 apples; and 
as many lemons can be bought for 48 apples as the num- 
ber of times that 4 is contained in 48 = 12 (lemons). 

14. Sixty-three gallons= (63X8) = 504 pints. Fifteen 
cents^3 = 5 cents. Five cents X 504 = 2520 (cents) = 
$25.20; $25.20-120 = 15.20. 

15. Two-thirds of $30 = $20; and if $20 are 4 times 
tbe cost of the hat, ^ of $20 = $5 must have been its cost. 

16. One hundred and twentyX ^^=40. 120x^=30. 
120Xi% = 36. 40 + 30 + 36 = 106. 120 — 106 = 14 (dollars). 

17. Twelve=3ij of 12X12 = 144; 144 = 3 times | of 
144; I of 144 = 48 (years). 

18. If 12 is two-thirds of some number, then one-half 
of 12, which is 6, must be one-third of the same number; 
and if 6 is o)ie-third of it, then three-thirds of it must be 
three times 6 = 18, 

19. Sixty dollars-4-|=$48. $60 — 48 = $12; $12-^$12 = 
$1, Or, since it was sold for | of the cost, the gain must 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC ANSWERS. 345 

have been ^ of the cost; and as $60 was f, i.of |60 = |!12, 
was |=the gain,.i|12-^'|l:^ = $l =:gain per yard. 

20. Sixty dollars X 5 = 1300; $300 — |60 = |240 = 1st 
remainder. |240 X |= l200 = 2d remainder. |200-^| = 
|250=:brother's income. 

21. Three and f dollars = $3.40 = 340 cents; and I can 
buy as many pounds of meat at 5 cents per pound as = the 
number of times 5 cents is contained in 340 cents = 6 8. 
68 pounds. 

22. FourX 16 = 64 (days' provisions). 8 persons would 
consume 8 days' provisions in 1 day; therefore 64 days' 
provisions would last them J of 64 days = 8 days. 

23. Five-ninths X 36 yards = 20 yards. |25-^|=$20, 
cost of 20 yards = $l per yard. 36 yards cost 1^6; and as 
the gain on 20 yards was ^ of the cost, then on 36 yards, 
it would have been $36 X ^ = $9. 

24. One chestnut is worth J^ cent; and 20 chestnuts 
2 0. cents=2 cents; and if | of a lemon are worth 2 cents, 
then i is worth 1 cent; and a lemon is worth 7 cents. 

25. Ten and ^='^j^-. If '^^? walnuts cost 1 chestnuts, i 
of a walnut costs yL ^^ '^ chestnuts= J_; and 1 walnut must 
cost '''Xy3=ff of a chestnut; and 9 walnuts 9 times ^= 
4J).=6i- (chestnuts). 

26. Three and f =-^^ hours. If to fill the vessel in JgS- 
of an hour it requires 6 orifices, to fill it in |^ of an hour it 
will require 18 times 6 = 108 orifices; and to fill it in ^^ of 
an hour it will require 3 times 108, or 324 orifices. 

27. Since the hound gains 2 rods by running 5 rods, he 
will gain 1 rod by running ^ of 5 rods = 2| rods; and to 
gain 40 rods, he must run 2i rods X 40 = 100 rods; 100 rods 
— 40 rods = 60 rods = the distance the fox ran. Or, since 
the hound gains 2 rods in every 5 rods that he runs, the 
gain is | of all he runs; and since 40 rods are to be gained, 
it follows that 40 rods are | of all he must run to overtake 
the fox; and if 40 rods are |, |- of 40 rods ( = 20 rods) 
must be 1^, and 20 rods X5 (=100 rods)=the whole dis- 



346 THE examiner's companion. 

tance the hound must run to -overtake the fox; and 100 
rods — 40 rods = 60 rods =i the distance the fox ran after the 
hound commenced the pursuit. 

28. If 8 feet of pole cast a shadow of 4-| feet (= V) 
long, 1 foot of pole will cast a shadow ^ of 2^ feet long = 
I of a foot; and 15 feet of pole, |X15, = 9 feet long; or, 
-2g* feetX-i/ = 9 feet. 

29. Five feet-=--L5.— 2. of a foot = length of pole which 
casts 1 foot of shadow; and -| of a footxf = 3 feet=:length 
of the pole casting a shadow 4|- feet long. 

30. Three-eighths+|=f|. 1— f|=^\; and if 500 are 
^\, then I of 500, = 100, is ■^\ and lOOx '72 = 7200 = the 
number in the army. 

31. '^welve=f; and 12-^|=54; 54 — 12 = 42. Or, as 
he had lost |^, and had ^ remaining, the number remaining 
=1 of the number lost. 12^|- = 42. 

32. Since 12 is | of some number, | of 12 ( = 4) must be 
^ of that number; and 4 times 4=16 = the whole of it. 
But to divide 12 by 3, and then to multiply that quotient 
by 4, is equivalent to dividing 12 by |. 

33. Five hundred Xt% = $150; $150-^| = |375. $375-^ 
3 = $125, amount paid for the silks. $500 — 1125 = $375, 
amount paid for other articles. 

34. Since 1 horse will eat \ of a bushel in 1 day, it 
will require as many horses to eat 1 bushel in 1 day as the 
number of times that :|^ of a bushel is contained in 1 bushel 
= 4 times; therefore, 4 horses, etc. 

35. If 4 horses eat 16 bushels in 2 days, 1 horse would 
eat :^ of 16 bushels, or, 4 bushels; and in 1 day ^ of 4 
bushels = 2 bushels; and 3 horses in 1 day, 3x2 = 6 bushels; 
and in 12 days, 6X12 = 72 bushels. 16-^(4 X2) = 2; 2X 
(3X12) = 72. Or, 16X3X12 _^^ 

4X2 

36. Four men in 2| days will perform 11 days' work, 
and receive 11 dimes, = 1 dime per day's work; and to 
earn 20 dimes in 4 days will require 5 men. 



MEXTAL ARITHMETIC ANSWERS. 347 

Si. Tliirty-six-^(Gx2) = 3 rods per day's work, and one 
man can build '72 rods in V|=24 days; but to do this in 3 
days will require 24-^3 = 8 men. 

38. Five-twelfths^ (2 X I) = | = Sf=l man's wages for 
1 day. 1^1=1 days for 1 man; |-^3 = | day for three 
men. 

39. One-eighth bushel-^ (4 X|-=)|=^ bushel for 1 
horse 1 day; ^-^Xi=Th bushel for 1 horse f of 1 day. 
9-^^_=:160 (horses). 

40. Twenty-^ 1^=156; $56^1 = 148 =A's money at first. 
$48-$20 = $28; $28-f-($56-$20 = |36) = |64 = B's money 
at first. 

41. Frank had | of his money remaining, and the thief 
gavebackfxf=i^. f— H=¥V $40^^\=$490. 

42. Seven+2 = 9. ^, |; |72X|=$56. $Y2Xf=ll6; 
$16 + $56 = |V2. 

43. Two horses ( = 4 sheep) x 10 = 20 horses for 1 week. 
Two horses X 10 = 2^0 horses; 20+20 = 40. |12 each. 

44. The chain equals 1 part, and the watch 3 of the 
same parts; both together, 4 parts. $80-^4 = $20, chain. 

160, watch. 

45. Thirty-six X| = 24. 18Xf = 27. 24 + 27 = 51c. 18X 
1=12. 36Xli=54; 54+12 = G6c.; 66c. — 51c. = 15c., gain. 

46. It would take them as many days as equal the 
number of times that y\ are contained in 1, or f|; f|H- -^^ 
= 2| days. 

47. A+B can build ^V i^ 1 day; A, B, and C, ^; i— ^V 
=^=what C can do in 1 day; l^^^ = 13i days. 

48. A, B, and C can fill i in 1 hour. A and B i, A 
and C i, in 1 hour. -|-i=i, C can fill in 1 hour, and can 
fill it in 4 hours. ^-^=^12, A can fill in 1 hour, and the 
whole in 12 hours. i-^=^, B can fill in 1 hour, and 
the whole in 6 hours. A, 12; B, 6; C, 4 hours. 

49. A,B, and C, ^0 P^i' day; A and B, ^; A and C, 
'^V io-i^=^^ C, 40 days; ^\-i^=^o^ A, 120 days; 

^-Ti^=^'B,60day8. 



348 THE examhstee's companion. 

50. One-4-4i=|-=what A can do in Iday. i — | = i = 
what B can do in 1 day. 1— ^=|; 2-^-^=6 days. 

51. The wolf in ^ hour can eat a of the sheep, and in 
1 hour he can eat | of a sheep. The bear in 1 hour can 
eat |- of a sheep. Therefore, in 1 hour both can eat f +|- 
= |2_ of a sheep. Therefore, to eat -f — 4 = ^V '^^ ^ sheep, it 
will require -^-^ of an hour=10 minutes 23 jL seconds. 

52. Let B's age=l, C's = 2 and A's = 4. A is twice as 
old as C; and as he is also 40 years older; he must be twice 
40 = 80 years old; B 20; and C 40. 

53. One and one-half dollars X60 = $90; |90 — $68=:|22. 
$l^+$i = |2. $22^$2 = 11, days idle. 60-11 = 49, days 
he labored. 

54. Two-third s-|-f =38^, ^; and if y%- of the first part 

— TT ^^ ^^^ second, then the first must be greater than the 

94-8 
second, or % of it; and the two together '^ of the whole 

length of the mast. 51 XfV, -^^ = 21, 24. 

55. Three-fourths of the lst+4=f of the 2d. 
Three-eighths " " lst+2=^ " " 2d. 
]Srine-eighths " " lst+6 = f " " 2d. 
176 — 6 = 1*70; iVOXyV tt=SO, 96. 

56. Two-thirds past time=f future time-|-| hours. ^ 
past time = ^ future tinie-|-|^ hours. | past tirae=^ future 
time +4 hours, f past tirae = 4 hours. ^ past time = 2 hours, 
f past time = 6; 6, P. M. 

57. Nine-eighths length in air-[-12 feet=| length in 
water, f length in air-|-4 feet=^ length in water, f length 
in air+8 feet=length in water. 78 — 8 = 70; 70xf=40, in 
the air; 40x| = 45; 45 + 12 = 57; -^| = 38, in the water. 

58. By a condition of the question, the length of the 
tail is ^ of the length of the body+ 12-)- 10 inches. Hence, 
the length of the head and tail of the fish must be equal 
to ^ of the length of the body-f 12-|-10+12 inches = :^ of 
the length of the body-}- 34 inches; to this add 20 inches, 
and the sum, by a condition of the question, must equal -|, 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC ANSWERS. 349 

the length of the body. Therefore, |^— -|=^ of the length 
of the body, equals 34-|-20 = o4 inches; and |, the length 
ofthe body, equals 2 times 54 inches=108 inches. The 
length of the tail equals ^ of the length of the body, which 
is 54 inches+12-f- 10 inches=76 inches. Hence, the length 
of the fish is 12 inches, the length of the head, -f- 108 inches, 
the length of the body,-|-76 inches, the length of the 
tail = 96 inches. 

59. Four years ago Samuel's age was 16 years, and 
Eugene's 0. 16 years from that time, or 12 years from 
this time, Samuel's age will be 32, and Eugene's 16. 

GO. Call his age at that time A, and hers ^ A. His age 
now is A+ 15 years; hers, ^ A+15 years. Then A+ 15 
years =2 (^ A+15 years) = f A+30 years; and A=f A-j- 
15; and ^ A =15 = wife's age at the time of marriage; 15 
X 3 = 45 = his age then. 45 + 15 = 60 his age now; 15 + 15 
= 30 = her age now; 60 = 30X2. 

61. I = i A, I+12 = f (A+12) = f A+9. lJ-3 = f A. 3 
=i A. 3x4 = 12 = A's age then. 12^2 = 6 = my age then; 
6+12 = 18 = my age now; 18 = f+24. 

62. Three hound-leaps = 6 fox-leaps. 6 — 4 = 2, fox- 
leaps, which the hound gains in taking 3 hound-leaps; and 
to gain 1 fox-leap, the hound must take 4 leaps. 

63. Three of Silas's steps = 7 of Alfred's. 6 of Silas's 
steps= 14 of Alfred's. 14 — 9 = 5, of Alfred's steps, which 
Silas gains in taking 6; to gain 60 (=12X5), Silas must 
take 12X6 = 72, steps; f x72 = 108, steps Alfred will take. 

64. Two+4 = 6. I cts.X2=yi cts. = 3^ cts. 6 cts.— 
3^ cts. = 2f cts.; 2fcents-=-2 = l|- cts., loss on each lemon. 

65. One-half cent+^ cent=|- cent= cost of 2 apples. |^ 
cent^2=y''2 cent=cost of 1 apple. 2 cents-=-5 = -| cent= 
price for which she sold 1 apple. ^5__ 2;=^i_^ lost on 1 apple. 
4 cents4-^V- 240, apples sold. 240^-2= 120, of each kind. 

06. Fifty cents +20 cents=70 cents; 70 cents-=-2 = 35 
cents = cost of 1 yard; 35 cents — 30 ceiits = 5 cents, lost on 
1 yard. 800 cents^5 = 160, yards. 



350 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

61. One-third+^=:J^; -jL^2=i-2\=cost of 1 egg. 3-^ 
==t=2¥; t¥— J¥=2^¥=iV=gain on 1 egg. 4 cents-^ji2 = 
48, eggs bought. 

68. One-half, |, i = ^, ^, -^%', 6+8+3. $510 X^^^, 
-jSj., ^ = 1180, 1240, $90. 17 

69. If yiy of the distance A ran is the distance he was 
ahead of B, and B ran 60 rods, it follows that TT~iT=ri 
of the distance A ran is 60 rods; hence, -^^ of the distance 
A ran is -^^ of 60 rods, or 6 rods; and \\-, or the distance A 
ran, is 11 times 6 rods = 66 rods. A, therefore, in running 
66 rods, gains on B 66 — 60 = 6 rods; hence, in running 1 
rod, he will gain -^^ of 6 rods, or yL- of a rod; and in run- 
ning 60 rods, he will gain 60 times y^^fo^, or 5^ rods. 

70. B's part of the sheep is 2 times A's to which add 
07ice A's, and we have 3 times A's part of the sheeji^goo. 
If 3 times A's part=900 sheep, once A's part is i of 900, 
or 300 sheep; and 2 times A's part, or B's part, is 2 times 
300 = 600, sheep. If |- of A's number of sheep = 300, J- 
of his number is ^ of 300, or 150; and |, or A's number, 
is 3 times 150 = 450, sheep. If f of B's number of sheep 
= 600, I of his number is ^ of 600, or 200; and | or B's 
number, is 4 times 200 = 800, sheep. 

71. (In Pennsylvania or New Jersey currency 7 shil- 
lings 6 pence make $1.) Each is to receive $50, or 50 times 
7-j shillings = 375 shillings. If A digs 1 rod for 10 shil- 
lings, for 375 shillings, he can dig as many rods as 10 
shillings is contained times in 375 shillings, or 37^ rods. 
If B digs 1 rod for 6 shillings, for 375 shillings he can 
dig as many rods as 6 shillings is contained times in 375 
shillings, or 621^ rods. 

72. If the sheep cost ^ as much as the cow, and the cow ^ 
as much as the horse, the cow must have cost 3 times as 
much as the sheep, and the horse 2 times as much as the 
cow, or 6 times as much as the sheep. Once the cost of 
the sheep+3 times the cost of the sheep (the cost of the 
cow), +6 times the cost of the sheep (the cost of the horse). 



MENTAL ABITUMETIC ANSWERS. 351 

= 10 times the cost of the sheep (the cost of all), = $100. 
If 10 times the cost of the sheep is llOO, once the cost of 
the sheep is ^l of $100 = |10; 3 times $10 = $30, the cost 
of the cow; and 6 times $10 = |60, the cost of the horse. 

73. The interest on the principal for 2 years was |S10 
— $750 = 160, and for 1 year it was \ of $60 = |30; and for 
5 years it was 5 times $30 = $150. Therefore, the prin- 
cipal was $750 — $150 = $600. Hence, the % was -^^ or 
2V of 100% =5%. 

74. If he received 3 times as much for the second as 
for the first, 4 times what he received for the first=$240; 
and once what he received for the first was :|- of $240 = $60; 
and what he received for the second was 3 times $60 = $180. 
On the first he lost 20%, or ^ of its value, and therefore 
received ^ of its value =$60, Hence, its value was |- of 
$60 = $75. On the second he gained 20%, or \ of its 
value, and therefore received -| of its value = $180. Hence, 
its value was |- of $180 = $150. 

75. The interest on the capital for the given time, at 
V%— 4%, or 3%, was $405 — $360 = $45, and at 1% it was 
^ of $45 = $15; and at 4% it was 4 times $15 = $60. There- 
fore, the principal was $360 — |6P = $300. The interest of 
$300 for 1 year, at 4%, is -^V of $300 = $12. If it require 1 
year to give $12 interest, to give $60 interest it will require 
as many years as $12 is contained times in $60, or 5 years. 

76. If the interest of $40 is $12, ^|, or^?^, of the prin- 
cipal equals the interest. If the interest of $1 for 1 year 
is -^ of a dollar, of $100 it is 100 times $53^, or $30. If 
it require 1 year for $100 to give $6 interest, to give $30 
interest it will require as many years as $6 is contained 
times in $30, or 5 years. 

77. If the interest of $50 for 1^, or |- years, is $6, for 
^ of a year it is \ of $6, or $2; and for -|, or 1 year, it is 
2 times $2, or $4. Therefore, 3*^, or ^^^ of the j^rincipal 
equals the annual interest, hence, the rate per cent, is -^^ 
of 100% = 8%. 



352 THE examiner's COMrANION. 

78. "With the interest at 100%, it would equal a given 
principal, or a given principal will double itself in 1 year, 
at 100 % ; and in 20 years, at 2V of 100 % ; or 5 %. 

19. A given principal will double itself in 100 years, 
atl %; and at 5 %, in \ of 100 years, which is 20 years. 

80. Since it was bought for $5, and sold for |7, the 
gain was $7 — 15, which is |2. Therefore, -| of the cost 
equals the gain. Hence, the gain % was f of 100 %, 
which is 40 %. 

81. If he gain 5 %, he gains y-^-^, or -J^- of the cost. 
-2V of |20 is |1, the gain. Therefore, to gain 5 %, he 
must sell the steer for |20+|1, or $21. 

82. If the interest of ll for 1 year is 5 cents, for 4 
years it is 4 times 5 cents, or 20 cents. Therefore, y^jL.^ or 
^ of the principal equals the interest; to which add |, the 
principal, and we have | of the principal equal to the 
amount, or |60. If | of the principal is $60, ^ of the 
principal is ^ of |G0, which is |10; and |- (the principal), 
is 5 times $10, which are $50. 

83. If I gain 25 %, I gain ^ of the cost; to which add 
1^, the cost, and I have f of the cost equal to $2.50. If 
f of the cost is $2.50, ^ of the cost is | of $2.50, or 50 
cents; and | (the cost) is 4 times 50 cents, which are 200 
cents, or $2. 



84. If I lose 5%, or 2V oi the cost, I receive |g 



■^0 = 



-1-9- of the cost=$38. . • . -jV of the cost is ^ of $38=:$2; 
and |A or the cost, is 20 times $2 = $40. 

85. I gain 25%, or ^ of the cost; . • . I receive |^-f|^ = 
|- of the cost, which is $2.50. . • . |- of the cost is -^ of $2.50, 
which is 50 cents; and |, or the cost, is 4 times 50 cents = 
$2. I am to sell it so as to lose 20%, or -| of the cost; . • . 
I must sell it for 5_i.= 4 of $2 = $1.60. 

86. He is to receive 5 %, or j^--^, or -J^ of all he col- 
lects, ^ft, all he collects, minus -J^, his fee, equals H- of 
all he collects, or $1 90, the amount he is to pay his employer. 
If ^ of what he collects equals $190, ^^ is yV of $190, 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC ANSWERS. 353 

which is $10; and |a (what he collects) is 20 times llO, or 
$200. Therefore he must receive |200 — $190^$10. 

87. Three yrs. 1 months 6 days = ^ yrs; Jg^X-lO^-^^. ^^ 
Xi=^%. $531-f-f^=$450=: 1st interest. |450H-^g-=$1250. 
G=l. J = 2, A=7; 1+2 + 7 = 10. $1250 X.l =1125; $125-^ 
^ = $300 = G's fortune. $1250 X.2=:$250; $250^1 = 1450=' 
J's fortune. $1250 X. 7 =$875; $875^| = $l750 = A's fort- 
une. 

88. In this example ^f^X 25 X 10 = 9 times the princi- 
pal. 9+1 = 10. $180^10 = $18=lst interest. $18-=-^!^ = 
$500; $500X^, | = $100, $400. $100^^ = $200 = A's fort- 
une. $400-^f=$600 = B's fortune. ^^^ 15.-9 

, 1 . 500V02~~T0 — 3" 

years = 1 year 9 months 18 days, time * 

the first was on interest. 

69. Since the numbers are to each other as 5 to 2, the 

given sum must be divided into 7 equal parts, and 5 of 

those parts will equal one of the numbers, and 2 of them 

the other; the numbers will be ^ of 28 and ^ of 28, equal 

to 20 and 8. 

90. Since he dug 5 rods more than ^ of the ditch the 
first week, the remainder, 20 rods, increased by 5 rods, 
must equal |- the ditch; 20 rods+5 rods = 25 rods, which 
is -g- of twice 25, or 50 rods. 

91. Since ^ of John's money equals f of Orson's, 2 
halves, or all of John's, will equal 2 times f , or | of Orson's; 
then John has 6, and Orson 5 equal parts of the money, and 
both have 11 parts; Jj- of $55 is $5, or 1 part; 6 times $5 
are $30, or John's share; and 5 times $5 are $25, or 
Orson's share. 

92. Since 2 cents was the increase paid to 1 beggar, and 
8 cents the increase paid to all, there were as many beggars 
as 2 is contained times in 8, which is 4 times. 

93. Had the last 2 obtained 3 each, there would have 
been 28 apples; then 4 times -^ of a number, plus 3 times 
I of the same number, or -I, would equal 28. Since 28 is T 
of a number, i of 28, or 4, is ^, and 4 is | of 2 times 4, or c. 

23 



354 THE examiner's COMPANION, 

94. Five times Andrew's age equals J^, 4 times f of it, 
plus 6 times ^ of it, equals ij*, and -igS. less J^ equals -J of 
it, which, according to the conditions of the question, is 3; 
and 3 is -^ of 3 times 3, or 9, 

95. If all had been good, he would have paid $15 or 
$2.40 more than he did; each bushel of poor ones made a 
difference of 30 cents; hence there were as many bushels 
of poor ones as 30 cents (the difference on 1 bushel) is 
contained times in |2,40, (the difference on all), which is 
8 times, equal to 8 bushels of poor ones; the difference 
between 30 bushels and 8 bushels is 22 bushels, equal to 
the good ones. 

96. Since 27 is the sum of two numbers whose differ- 
ence is 5, 27 less 5, or 22, would be twice the less number; 
^ of 22 is 11, the less number, which increased by 5 equals 
16, or the greater number. 

97. If Joseph gave f to his sister, the 5 left was ^', 5 
is ^ of 4 times 5, or 20, and 20, plus the 6 he ate, make 
26, which is -| of James's, etc. 

98. The longer piece is divided into 5 equal parts, 2 of 
which equal the shorter; the sum of the 2 pieces is 7 equal 
parts, one of which equals -1 of 28 feet, or 4 feet; 2 parts 
equal 2 times 4 feet, which are 8 feet, the shorter piece; 5 
parts equal 5 times 4 feet, which are 20 feet, the longer piece. 

99. Julius has 6 more than f as many as Arthur, which 
makes the sum 48, 6 greater than if he had but f as many; 
Arthur's are divided into 4 parts, of which 3 parts plus 6 
peaches are equal to Julius's; then 4 parts plus 3 parts, 
plus 6 peaches, equal 48, 7 parts equal 42, and i of 42, or 
6, equals 1 part. 3 parts plus 6 equal 24, the number 
Julius has, and 4 parts equal 24, the number Arthur has. 

100. Since ^ of the apples equals ^ of the plums, |, or 
all the apples, equal f of the plums; we then have the 
apples and plums divided into 5 equal parts, 2 parts of 
which equal the apples, and 3 the plums. 

101, The time to midnight is divided into 5 equal parts, 



MENTAL AKITIIMETIC ANSWERS. 355 

one of which equals the time past noon; then 5 parts plus 
1 part equals 6 parts; and 12 hours, the time from noon to 
midnight, must be -| of the time it lacked of being mid- 
night; since 12 is |, |, which is |- of |, will be ^ of 1 2 hours, 
which is 2 hours. Therefore the hour was 2 o'clock, P. M. 

102. Since the third piece is as long as the other two, 
it must be ^ of the rope; the second piece, being ^ as long, 
is ^•, and the 6 feet which the second exceeds ^, with the 
5 feet of the first piece, make 10 feet, which must be the 
other fourth; 4 times 10 is 40. 

103. If f equal | +4, ^ will equal ^ of -|+4, which is 
1 + 2, this is ^ of 3 times -^+2, or f+6; then we have 1 
piece equal to | the other plus 6 yards, or one piece divided 
into 5 parts, and 3 of these parts plus 6 yards equal the 
other piece; hence, 5 parts plus 3 parts plus 6 yards equal 
38 yards, or 8 parts and 6 yards, equal 38 yards; 38 yards 
minus 6 yards equal 32 yards, or 8 parts. 

104. Eight years since, Robert was 17 years old; in 17 
years from that time, or, since Frank is 8 years old, in 17 
less 8, or 9 years from this time, Frank will be 17 years of 
age, and Robert will be twice 17, or 34 years old. 

105. Since Ira won as many as he had, he left off play- 
ing with twice as many as he began with; and Paul, now 
having the same number, must have had 3 times as many 
as Ira when they commenced playing. 45 is 3 times ^ of 
45, or 15, and 45 + 15 is 60. 

106. Since Daniel has as many as James and Joseph, he 
must have |- of the whole; then 10 sheep, plus 10+f of -^j 
plus ^, equals 1+20, or the whole number of sheep; hence 20 
equals^ the number, and 20 is ^ of 6 times 20, or 120 sheep. 

107. Since the minute hand passes the hour hand 11 
times in 12 hours, if both are at 12, the minute hand will 
pass the hour hand the first time in j^j-of 12 hours, or in l-^^ 
hours, equal to 6^5^. minutes past 1 o'clock. 

108. While the hound is running the distance the tox 
is ahead of him, the fox has advanced yL of this distance, 



356 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

and so on. Hence, the hound, mathematically speaking, 
can never overtake the fox. The hound can run 11^ rods, 
and the fox li rods. 

109. He filled the 3-quart measure and poured it into 
the 5-quart measure; again he filled the 3-quart measure 
and from it filled the 5-quart measure. He then had 1 
quart remaining in the 3-quart measure. He emptied the 
6-quart measure and placed in it the 1 quart remaining in 
the 3 quart measure. He now filled the 3-quart measure 
and emptied it into the 5-quart measure which now con- 
tains 1 + 3 = 4 quarts. 

110. The hound gains on the fox 9 rods in running 10 
rods, and to gain 10 rods, the distance the fox is ahead of 
the hound, he must run i^ of 10 rods= 11-^ rods. 

111. He placed 3 pigs in each of 3 pens, and these 3 
pens, containing 9 pigs, in another pen. 

112. In this question IX taken from SIX leaves S. 

X taken from IX leaves I. 
L taken from XL leaves X. 
And the remainder is SIX, or 6. 

113. The children received 2 cents the most. Thechil- 
dren sold the apples at an average of ^-^, or || of a cent 
each; and the mother at -|, or |^a of a cent each. 

114. He first took over the goose; then the fox, and 
brought back the goose and left it; then the corn, and then 
the goose. 

115. Let 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 be the pennies. 
Carry 5 over 3 and 4, V over 8 and 9, 3 over 4 and 6, 1 
over 2 and 5, and 9 over 8 and 3. 

116. Themerchantlostbythe operation $45 and the hat. 

117. Possibly there might. The equatorial diameter of 
the earth is 26 miles greater than its polar diameter, and 
should the earth cease its revolution on its axes, then the 
water of the Mississippi River would flow northward. 



ALGEBRA. 





QUESTIONS. 



1. Define Algebra. 

2. Is Algebra confined merely to questions relating to 
numbers? 

3. How is the reasoning carried on? 

4. What are employed for representing quantities or 
magnitudes?? 

5. Define Quantity. 

6. How is a quantity measured? 

1. What is the assumed standard called? 

8. Define Mathematics. 

9. How is mathematics divided? 

10. Define pure mathematics. 

11. Define mixed mathematics. 

12. Explain the sign of Addition. 

13. Do we ever make use of the same sign to connect 
several numbers together? 

14. Explain the sign of Subtraction. 

15. May we have several numbers to subtract from a 
single one? 

16. What can you say of the double sign? 

17. Explain the sign of Multiplication. 

18. Explain the sign of Division. 

(357) 



358 THE examiner's companion. 

1 9. Explain the sign of Equality. 

20. Tell about the sign of Inequality. 

21. Explain the use of the Parenthesis. 

22. What can you say of the Vinculum? 

23. Explain the use of the Radical Sign. 

24. Define known quantities. Unknown quantities. 

25. How are known and unknown quantities represented? 

26. Is this a necessary rule? 

27. Define literal quantities. 

28. How is the multiplication of literal quantities 
expressed? 

29. Define a coefficient. 

30. When no coeflScient is expressed what is understood? 

3 1 . Must the coefficient always be a figure ? 

32. When the coefficient is a number what may it be 
called? When a letter? 

33. Define an exponent. 

34. How would you discriminate between a coefficient 
and an exponent? 

35. Define a power. A root. 

36. Define an equation and its members. 

37. What are the terms of an algebraic quantity? 

38. What are positive terms? Negative terms? 

39. Define similar terms. Dissimilar terms. 

40. Define a monomial. A polynomial. 

41. What is a binomial? A residual? 

42. What is a trinomial? 

43. Define the degree of a term. 

44. Define a homogeneous quantity. 

45. Define addition in Algebra. 

46. Define subtraction in Algebra. 

47. Define multiplication in Algebra. 

48. Define division in Algebra. 

49. Show its relation to Multiplication. 

50. What is the reciprocal of a quantity? 
61. Give the definition of factors. 



ALGEBRA QUESTIONS. 359 

52. What is a composite quantity? 

53. Define a prime quantity. 

54. When are several quantities prime to each other? 

55. What is a common divisor of two quantities? 

56. What is the greatest common divisor of two quanti- 
ties? 

51. When is one quantity a multiple of another quantity? 

58. Define a common multiple of two or more quantities. 

59. Define the least common multiple of two or more 
quantities. 

GO. Define a fraction. 

61. Every fraction is composed of how many parts? 

62. A fraction is equal to the reciprocal of what? 

63. Define an entire quantity. 

64. Define a mixed quantity. 

65. Define the apparent sign of a fraction. 

66. Define the real sign of a fraction. 

67. Define the reduction of a quantity. 

68. Reduce 5la^b-GSa^b^ ^^ -^^ l^^^^t terms. 

36a4^)2_9«5 

69. Define an equation. 

70. Define the members of an equation. 

71. Define an arithmetical equation. 

72. Define an algebraical equation. 

73. What do algebraic equations serve to express? 

74. What is a numeral equation? 

75. What is a literal equation? 

76. Define an identical equation. 

77. Define the degree of an equation. 

78. Define a simple equation. 

79. Define a quadratic equation. 

80. Define a cubic equation. 

81. What is the transformation of an equation? 

82. What is the reduction of an equation? 

83. To reduce an equation what must we do? 

84. A. and B. can perform a piece of labor in a days; A. 



360 THE examiner's companion. 

and C. together in I days; and B. and C. together in e days. 
In what time could they finish it if all work together? 

85. Define ratio. 

86. A ratio is measured how? 

87. Define a compound ratio, 

88. Define proportion. 

89. Define a problem. 

90. Define the solution of a problem, 

91 John is 16 years younger than his brother Henry, 
but 3 times the age of Heni-y is equal to 5 times that of 
John; what are their ages? 

92, A drover had 4 times as many cows as horses, and 
5 times as many sheep as cows, and the number of them 
all was 100; how many horses had he? 

93, A school-boy had 120 pins and needles, and he had 
seven times as many pins as needles; how many had he of 
each sort? 

94, Thomas is now 25 years old, and his youngest 
brother is 15, How many years must elapse before their 
ages will be in the proportion of 5 to 4? 

95, A mechanic spends |- of his salary for his board, 
and I of the remainder in clothes, and yet saves |150 a 
year. What is his salary? 

96, A gentleman, who had just come into possession of 
a fortune, spent | of it the first year, and ^ of the remain- 
der the next year, when he had $1420 left. What was his 
fortune? 

97, Define independent equations. 

98, Independent equations always refer to what? 

99, How many equations are required that the values 
of two unknown quantities may be determined? 

100, Define elimination, 

101, How many, and what are the three principal 
methods of elimination? 

102, Define a power of a quantity. 

103, How are powers indicated? 



ALGEBRA — QUESTIONS. 361 

104. What is the first power of any quantity? 

105. What is the square of any quantity? 

lOG. What would you call the cube of any quantity? 

107. Define a perfect power. 

108. Define an imperfect power. 

109. Define involution. 

110. What is the first power? The second power? 

111. What is the third power? The fourth power? 

112. In the power of a monomial there are how many 
things to be considered? 

113. Please define a root of a quantity. 

114. Define evolution. 

115. Define the index of the root. 

116. What is a surd? 

117. When a root of an algebraic quantity which is 
required cannot be exactly obtained, what is it called? 

118. Define a rational quantity. 

119. Define an imaginary root. 

120. A root which is not imaginary is said to be what? 

121. Define a radical quantity. 

122. How are radical quantities divided? 

123. What is the coefiicient of a radical? 

124. Define similar radicals. 

125. Define reduction of radical quantities. 

126. Define a quadratic equation. 

127. Quadratic equations are divided into how many 
classes, and what are they called? 

128. Define a pure quadratic equation. 

129. AVhat is an affected quadratic equation? 

130. Define the root of an equation. 

131. What is an arithmetical progression? 

132. What are the extremes? The means? 

133. Define a geometrical progression. 

134. What is the ratio? 

135. A may-pole is 56 feet high. At what distance above 
the ground must it be broken, in order that the upper part, 



362 



THE examiner's COMPANION. 



clinging to the stump, may touch the ground 12 feet from 
the foot? 

130. A man sold a horse for 144 dollars, and gained as 
much per cent as the horse cost him. What did the horse 
cost him? 

137. Two numbers are in the proportion of 5 to 8, and 
if 200 be added to the first, and 120 to the second, the sums 
will be to each other as 5 to 4 ; what are the numbers? 

138. A farmer had 8 more cows than horses. He bought 
2 more cows and sold 3 horses; and he then had 5 times as 
many cows as horses. How many had he at first? 

139. Some boys on a frolic incurred a bill of $12. If 
there had been two more in the company each would have 
been charged 30 cents less. How many were in company? 

140. The sum of three numbers in arithmetical progres- 
sion is 15, and their product is 80. Required the numbers. 





1. Algebra is a species of universal arithmetic, founded 
on the same principles as common arithmetic, and proceed- 
ing by rules and operations precisely similar. 

2. No, it is not confined merely to questions relating to 
numbers, being applied generally to investigate the rela- 
tions that subsist among quantities of all kinds, whether 
arithmetical or geometrical. 

3. The reasoning is carried on by general signs or sym- 
bols, which are of two kinds, — those which denote quantity, 
and those which denote the affections or relations, or prop- 
erties of quantities, and operations to be performed on them. 

4. The letters of the alphabet are employed for repre- 
senting quantities or magnitudes. 

5. Quantity is any thing that can be increased, diminished, 
measured or compared; as distance, time, motion and space. 

6. A quantity is measured by finding how many times 
it contains some other quantity of the same kind taken as 
a standard. 

7. The assumed standard is called the unit of measure. 

8. Mathematics is that science, or class of sciences, 
which investigates the consequences which are logically 

(363) 



364 THE examixer's OOlSrPANIOX. 

deducible from any given or admitted relations between 
magnitudes or numbers without being descriptive of their 
subject matter. 

9. Mathematics is divided into two classes; namely, 
pure and mixed. 

10. Pure mathematics considers magnitude or quantity 
abstractly, without relation to matter. It embraces numerous 
subdivisions, such as Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, etc. 

11. Mixed mathematics consider the application of pure 
mathematics to certain established physical principles; and 
this branch comprehends all the mathematical sciences 
which appertain to physics; as mechanics, hydrodynamics, 
optics, astronomy, acoustics, electricity, and magnetism. 

12. The sign of addition is an erect cross, -\-, called 
2)lus, and when placed between two quantities it indicates 
that the second is to be added to the first. Thus Y-)-5 
indicates that we must add 5 to the number Y, in which 
case the result is 12. 

13. We do. Thus, D-f-Y+S indicates that to the num- 
ber 9 we must add 7 and also 3, which make 19. So, also, 
10 + 7 + 15 + 13 + 3 + 5 + 12 is equal to 65. 

14. The sign of subtraction is a short horizontal line, — , 
called minus, and when placed between two quantities, 
it indicates that the second is to be subtracted from the 
first. Thus, 12 — 9 indicates that the number 9 is to be 
taken from the number 12, which leaves a remainder of 3. 
In like manner, 18 — 11 is equal to 7, etc. 

15. Yes, at times we may have several numbers to 
subtract from a single one. Thus, 14 — 7 — 2 indicates that 
7 is to be subtracted from 14, and this remainder is to be 
further diminished by 2, leaving 5 for the result. 

16. The double sign + is sometimes written before a 
quantity to indicate that in certain cases it is to be added, 
and in others it is to be subtracted. Thus, 4±2 is read, 
4 plus or minus 2, and denotes either the sum or the 
difference of these two quantities. 



ALGEBRA ANSWERS. 365 

17. The sign of multiplication is an inclined cross, X. 
When placed between two quantities, it indicates that the 
first is to be multiplied by the second. Thus, 5 X V indicates 
that 5 is to be multiplied by 1, making 35. 

18. The sign of division is a short horizontal line with 
a point above and one below, -4-. When placed between 
two quantities it indicates that the first is to be divided by 
the second. Thus, 20-^4 indicates that 20 is to be divided 
by 4, making 5. The horizontal line without the points 
becomes the sign of division when the dividend is written 
above and the divisor below it; thus, ^ indicates division, 
the same as 24^8. 

19. The sign of equality consists of two short horizontal 
lines, = . When written between two quantities, it indicates 
that they are equal to each other. Thus, 9+8 = 17 denotes 
that the sum of 9 and 8 is equal to 17. 

20. The sign of inequality is the angle > or <. When 
placed between two quantities, it indicates that they are 
unequal, the opening of the angle being turned toward 
the greater number. When the opening is toward the left, 
it is read greater than; when the opening is toward the 
right, it is read less than. Thus, 9 > 6 denotes that 9 is 
greater than 6; and 7 < 13 denotes that 7 is less than 13. 

21. A parenthesis, ( ), denotes that the several number* 
or quantities included within it are to be considered 
together, and subjected to the same operation; thus, (12-f-2) 
X5 indicates that both 12 and 2, or their sum, is to be 
multiplied by 5; (12 — 2)x5 indicates that the difference 
of 12 and 2 is to be multiplied by 5. 

22. A horizontal vinculum, , placed over the 

numbers or quantities, is frequently used instead of the 
parenthesis; thus, 6+4+5 X9 is equivalent to (6 + 4+5) X 9. 

23. The radical sign, \/, indicates that the root of the 
quantity placed under it is to be extracted. The name or 
index of the required root is the number written above 
the radical sign. Thus, -^^9, or simply ,y/9, denotes the 



366 THE examiner's companion. 

square root of 9, which is 3. ^^64 denotes the cube root 
of 64, which is 4, etc. 

24. Known quantities are those quantities whose values 
are given. Unknown quantities are those quantities whose 
values are to be determined. 

25. Known quantities are generally represented by the 
first letters of the alphabet, as c/, h, c, c?, etc. Unknown 
quantities are represented by the final letters of the alpha- 
bet, as ?/, X, y, z, etc. 

26. It is not a necessary rule, and therefore is not 
always observed. 

27. Literal quantities are those numbers or values 
which are expressed by letters. 

28. The multiplication of literal quantities is expressed 
by simply writing the factors together, without the sign X ; 
thus, 4 times x is written 4iK; 5 times x is written bx; 
b times x is written bx; and b times c times z is written 
bcz- and so on. 

29. A coefficient is a number or quantity prefixed to 
another quantity to denote how many times the latter is 
taken; thus in the term 'iah'^c, ^ab"^ is the coefficient of 
c. 2a of 62c, and 2 oiab^c. 

30. When no coefficient is expressed, 1 is always to be 
understood. Thus, la and a denote the same thing. 

31. No. The coefficient may be a letter as well as a 
figure. In the expression 7nz, m may be considered as the 
coefficient of z, because z is to be taken as many times as 
there are units in m. If 7n stands for Y, then niz is 7 
times z. 

32. When the coefficient is a number, it may be called 
a numerical coefficient; and when it is a letter, a literal 
coefficient. In bax, 5 may be regarded as the coefficient 
of ax, or ba may be regarded as the coefficient of x. 

33. An exponent is a number, or a symbol representing 
a number, which, when written above and to the right of 
any symbol or quantity, indicates that a corresponding 



ALGEliiU. — A:\ SWEKS. 



367 



power of that quantity is to be taken. Thus a* is a laconic 
mode of expressing aXciXaXa, or aaaa. 

34. In order to discriminate between a coefficient and 
an exponent, the two may be contrasted, thus: 5a! indicates 
that X is multiplied by 5; a;5 indicates that x is multiplied 
by itself till it is used 5 times as a factor. Again, 5.c is 
an abbreviation of x-\-x-\-x-\-x-\-x\ x^ is an abbreviation 
oi xXxXxXxXx, or of xxxxx. 

35. A power is the product of any quantity multiplied 
by itself some number of times. Thus, the second power 
or square of 5 is 25, or 5 multiplied by 5; the third power 
or cube of a is the product of three a's multiplied together, 
briefly expressed by a^, etc. A root is a number or quan- 
tity which, multiplied by itself a stated number of times, 
is equal to a given number, or, in other words, produces a 
higher power. Thus in n^, n is the root which is repeated 
to form the power n^. 

36. An equation is a term given to the symbolic expres- 
sion of the quality of two quantities. The sign —, placed 
between the two quantities, signifies that they are equal. 
Thus, 5.«+10 = 25, is an equation expressing the equality 
of the quantities bx-\-lQ and 25. The Jirst member of an 
equation is the quantity on the left side of the sign of equal- 
ity, and the second member is the quantity on the right of 
the sign of equality. Thus, Z.t=2ab, Zx is the first mem- 
ber, and 2ab the second member. 

3V. The terms of an algebraic quantity are the divis- 
ions made by the signs, +and — . Thus, in the quantity 
bb-\-c'^ — ny, there are three terms, of which bb is the first, 
-\-c^ is the second, and — ??y is the third. 

38. Positive terms are those terms which have the plus 
sign. As, +^2 or-f-c4(7. The first term of an algebraic 
quantity, if written without any sign, is positive, the sign 
-|-being understood. Negative terms are those terms 
which have the minus sign. As, — 3^, or— 4^^^. The 
sign of a negative quantity is never omitted. 



368 THE examiner's comi'akion. 

39. Similar terms are terms containing the same letters, 
affected with the same exponents. The signs and coeffi- 
cients may differ, and the terms still be similar. Thus, 56^ 
and 7^3 are similar terms; 4c2(Zand—'7c2fZ are similar terms. 
Dissimilar terms are those terras which have different 
letters or exponents. Thus abc and acd are dissimilar 
terms; ax'^y^ and a'^xy are dissimilar terms. 

40. A monomial is an algebraic expression consisting of 
but a single term. As 2b, 5ac, or Qd'^y. A polynomial 
is an algebraic quantity consisting of many terms. Thus, 
c-\-d; or 5cd—4:y-{-b, are polynomials. 

41. A binomial is a quantity composed of two terms 
connected together by the signs+or— ; thus, a-\-b and c 
— 5 are binomial quantities. A residual is a binomial 
composed of two parts or members, connected together by 
the sign tnimts: as, x — b, or 5 — 3. 

42. A trinomial is an algebraical quantity or expression 
consisting of three terms, connected by the sign plus or 
minus; as, a^-{-bc'^—d^; or 'Ja—5b-\-d'^. 

43. The degree of a term is the magnitude of the 
greatest sum that can be formed by adding together the 
exponents of the facients or variables which occur in any 
single term of an equation or expression; thus, a and Sb 
are terms of the first degree; a^ and 2ab are terms of the 
second degree; a^, Ba^b, and 5abc are terms of the 
third degree. 

44. A homogeneous quantity is a quantity whose terms 
are all of the same degree. Thus, x^ — Sx'^y-\-xyz. 

45. Addition, in algebra, is the connecting of quan- 
tities together by means of their proper signs, and incor- 
porating such as can be united into one sum. 

46. Subtraction, in algebra, is the operation of finding 
the difference between two quantities or sets of quantities. 

47. Multiplication in algebra is the operation of repeat- 
ing one quantity as many times as there are units in another. 

48. Division in algebra is the process of finding how 



V 



ALGEBRA ANSWERS, 369 

many times one number or quantity is contained in another. 

49. Division is the converse of multiplication, the divi- 
dend answering to the product, and the divisor and quotient 
to the multiplier and multiplicand. 

50. The reciprocal of a quantity is the quotient arising 
from dividing a unit by that quantity. Thus the reciprocal 
of 2 is ^; the reciprocal of a is -^, etc. 

51. The factors of a quantity are those quantities 
which, being multiplied together, will produce th3 given 
quantity. 

52. A composite quantity is one that may be produced 
by the multiplication of two or more factors. A compos- 
ite quantity is exactly divisible by any of its factors. 

53. A prime quantity is one that can not be produced 
by the multiplication of two or more factors, and is divisi- 
ble only by itself and unity. 

54. Several quantities are prime to each other when 
they have no common factor, or when no quantity except 
unity will divide them all. 

55. A common divisor of two quantities is a quantity 
which will divide them both without a remainder. Thus 
2a6 is a common divisor of Qa'^h'^x, and lOa^h'^y. 

56. The greatest common divisor of two quantities is 
the greatest quantity which will divide each of them with- 
out a remainder. 

57. One quantity is a multiple of another quantity when 
it can be divided by it without a remainder. Thus hah 
is a multiple of 5, also of a and of h. 

58. A common multiple of two or more quantities is 
one which is exactly divisible by each of them. Thus 
20a^62 is a common multiple of \ab and 5a2§2. 

50. The least common multiple of two or more quan- 
tities is the least quantity that can be divided by each 
without a remainder. Thus 12a2 \% the least common 
multiple of 3a2 and 4a. 

60. A fraction is a quotient expressed by writing the 
24 



370 THE p;xaminer's companion. 

dividend above a horizontal line, and the divisor below. 

Thus, — is a fraction, and is read, a divided by b 
b 

61. Every fraction is composed of two parts: the divi- 
sor, which is called the denominator, and the dividend, 
which is called the numerator. 

62. Since a quantity is divided by dividing any one of 

its factors, we have — = _iS- = — X «; hence, A fraction is 
b b b ' 

equal to the reciprocal of its denominator multiplied by its 
numerator. 

63. An entire quantity is an algebraic expression which 
has no fractional part, as a^ — 1ab. 

64. A mixed quantity is an expression which has both 

entire and fractional parts. Thus a+ — m.— is a mixed 

^ ^ a'^ \-b 

quantity. 

65. The apparent sign of a fraction is the sign written 
before the dividing line, to indicate whether the fraction 

is to be added or subtracted. Thus, in m-| , the 

apparent sign of the fraction is plus, and indicates that 
the fraction is to be added to m. 

66. The real sign of a fraction is the sign of its numer- 
ical value, when reduced to a monomial, and shows whether 
the fraction is essentially a positive or a negative quantity. 

Thus, in the last fraction, ^-, let x= 2 and «'/= 12; then 

u — x 

r^2_a^ 4-12x2 __ -20^ _ ^ jjence, the real sign of this 

a—x ~ 12 — 2 "~ 10 
fraction is nii?ius, though its apparent sign is plus. 

67. The reduction of a quantity is the operation of 
changing its form without altering its value. 

68. By comparing 9ab, the smallest term, with the 
other terms, we perceive that 3 is the greatest numeral 
divisor common to all the terms, and ab is continued 
in all the terms. Therefore, Sab is the greatest common 

,,..-,. , . , . Ila^—2lab . 

factor, and dividmg by it, we obtain .^ ,. — --, Ana. 
*^ 12a^o — o 



ALGEBRA ANSWERS. 371 

69. An equation is an expression of equality, between 
two algebraic quantities; thus, ^x=2ab is an equation 
denoting that three times the quantity x is equal to twice 
the product of the quantities a and b. 

70. The first member of an equation is the quantity on 
the left side of the sign of equality, and the second member 
is the quantity on the right of the sign of equality. Thus, 
in the equation, a-{-h=1x-y, the quantity, a+ 5, is the 
first member of the equation, and the quantity, 1x—y, is 
the second member. 

V 1 . An arithmetical equation is one which expresses the 
equality of numbers or sets of numbers; as 20 = 20, 
7 + 6 = 10 + 3. 

72. An algebraic equation is one which contains one 
or more literal quantities; as, 5ic=14; c{a-^b) = d. 

73. Algebraic equations serve to express the relations 
between known and unknown quantities, and to determine 
the values of the unknown quantities by comparing them 
with some that are known. 

74. A numeral equation is one in which all the known 
quantities are represented by figures; as, 5a-+4cc= 15. 

75. A literal equation is one in which the known 
quantities are represented by letters, or by letters and 
figures; as, a;4_ 3^^3 + 5^3.2 = 18; «y+cc2 = 60. 

76. An identical equation is one in which the two num- 
bers are the same, or capable of being reduced to the same 
expression by performing the operations indicated. Thus 
2a;— l = 2ic— 1 ) ., . , ' 
5x-{-^x=Sx \ ^^6 identical equations. 

77. The degree of an equation is denoted by the highest 
exponent of the unknown quantity in the equation. 

78. A simple equation is an equation of the first degree 
Thus, a;=« ) . . , 

x-{-bx=ic \ ^^® equations of the first degree. 

79. A quadratic equation is an equation of the second 
degree. Thus, 

ic2+aa*=c ) • ,. , 

ax'^-{-bx — h f ^^® equations of the second degree. 



372 THE examiner's companion, 

80. A cubic equation is an equation of the third degree. 
' 3_l; .— r ^^® equations of the third degree. 

81. The transformation of an equation is the process of 
changing a term from one member of an equation to the 
other without destroying the equality of the members. 

82. The reduction of an equation is the process of find- 
ing the value of the unknown quantity. 

83. To reduce an equation, we must so transform it 
that the unknown quantity shall stand alone, and constitute 
one member; the other member will then be the value of 
the unknown quantity. 

84. Let X denote the required time. 

Then — _|_ — _)_ — — — 

Hence bcx-{-acx-{-abx=2abc. 
and x= 2abc 

ab-\-ac-\-bc 
Ans. days. 

85. Ratio is the relation which one quantity bears to 
another with respect to magnitude. 

86. A ratio is measured by the fractions whose nume- 
rator is the antecedent and whose denominator is the con- 
sequent of the ratio. Thus the ratio of a to ft is meas- 
ured by — 

87. A compound ratio is the ratio arising from multi- 
plying together the corresponding terms of two or more 
simple ratios. Thus the ratio of a to 6 compounded with 
the ratio of c to c? becomes ac to bd. 

88. Proportion is an equality of ratios. Thus, 
If ^=,-^ or B =?• A: and -5 =r, or D = r C; 

then the four quantities, A, B, C, and D, are proportional, 
and their proportionality is expressed thus: A : B :: C : D, 
in which A and D are called the extremes, and B and C 
the means. 

89. A problem is a question requiring the values of 

unknown quantities from given conditions. 



ALGEBRA ANSWERS. 373 

90. The solution of a problem is the process of finding 
the values of the unknown quantities. 

91. Let ic^the age of John; 

and a;-[-16 = the age of Henry. 
By the second condition, 6ic=3a;-)-3x 16; 

2a;=3X16; and a;=3x8 = 24. Ans. 24 and 40. 

92. Let ic=the number of horses; 

4a;=the number of cows; 
and 20a;=the number of sheep. 
Sum, 25a:= 100, by the last condition. 

Whence, x=4, Ans. 

93. Let a;=the number of needles; 
and 7cc=the number of pins. 

Sum, 8a;=120, by first condition. 

Whence a;=15, needles; and 7.c= 105, pins; Ans. 

94. Let the required number of years be represented by x. 

Then, 25-f-.«: 15+ic::5:4 
Whence, 100+4.^= 75-f5.i-; 
and a;=25, Ans. 

95. Let 9ic=:his salary; then, after paying board, he 
will have 3x left. Paying out f of this, or 2c, for clothes, 
and he will have ic left. Whence, a; =150; and 150x9 = 
1350, Ans. 

96. Let 40a; represent his fortune. Then, 15.« was 
spent the first year, and 25a; was left. The second year, 
^ of 25.1', or 20a;, was spent, and 5a; only was left. 

Hence, 5.i'=1420. 

Multiply by 8, and 40a;= 11360, his fortune, Ans. 

97. Independent equations are such as can not be 
reduced to the same form, or derived one from the other; 
as .v-\-3y — a, and 4x-\-57/=b. 

98. Independent equations always refer to the same 
problem, and express different conditions of the problem. 

99. Two unknown quantities can be determined from 
two independent equations. 

100. Elimination is the process of combining two or 



S74 THE examiner's COMPANION. 

more equations, containing two or more unknown quan- 
tities, in such a manner as to cause one or more of the 
unknown quantities contained in them to disappear. 

101. There are three; 1st, by substitution; 2d, by com- 
parison; 3d, by addition and subtraction. 

102. A power of a quantity is the product obtained by 
taking that quantity any number of times as a factor. 

103. Powers are indicated by exponents, from which 
they take their names. 

104. The first power of any quantity is the quantity itself. 

105. The square of any quantity is its second power. 

106. The cube of any quantity is its third power. 

107. A perfect power is a quantity that can be exactly 
produced by taking some other quantity a certain number 
of times as a factor. Thus, a^-^-^ab-^-b"^ is a perfect 
power, because it is equal to {a-\-b) X (a-{-b). 

108. An imperfect power is a quantity that can not be 
exactly produced by taking another quantity any number 
of times as a factor. As, a'^-{-b, x-{-37/, and a'^-\-ab-{-b'^. 

109. Involution is the process of raising any quantity 
to any given power. Involution, in algebra, is performed 
by successive multiplications, as in arithmetic. 

lit). The first power is the quantity itself. The second 
power is the product of the quantity multiplied by itself. 

111. The third power is the product of the second 
power by the quantity. The fourth power is the third 
power multiplied by the quantity, etc. 

112. There are three things to be considered in the 
power of a monomial: first, the coefficient; second, the 
exponents; third, the sign. 

113. A root of a quantity is one of the equal factors 
which, multiplied together, will produce that quantity. 

114. Evolution is the process of extracting any root of 
a given quantity. It is the converse of involution, and is 
indicated by the radical sign, )/. 

115. The index of the root is the figure placed above 



ALGEBRA ANSWERS. 375 

the radical sign to denote what root of the quantity under 
the radical is to be taken. Tims, in 3^ h^ 3 is the index 
of the root and denotes that the third root of h is to be 
taken. 

116. A surd is the indicated root of an imperfect 
power; the root thus indicated can not be exactly obtained 
or expressed. Thus, ^sja^ is called a surd, sj^ is also a 
surd, because the square root of 3 can not be expressed in 
numbers with perfect exactness. 

117. It is called an irrational quantity or surd quantity. 

118. A rational quantity is one which can be expressed 
in finite terms, and without any radical sign ; as, a, Va^, etc. 

119. An imaginary root is one which can not be 
extracted on account of the sign of the given quantity. 
Thus the square root of— 4 is impossible, because no quan- 
tity raised to an even power can produce a negative result. 

120. A root which is not imaginary is said to be real. 

121. A radical quantity is an indicated root of a quan- 
tity: as sja, ^sjci, etc. Radical quantities may be either 
surd or rational. 

122. Radical quantities are divided into degrees, the 
degree being denoted by the index of the root. Thus, »J^ 
is a radical of the second degree; ^y's ig a radical of the 
third degree, etc. 

12a. The coefficient of a radical is the number or letter 
prefixed to it, showing how often the radical is to be taken. 
Thus, in the expression "^sja, 2 is the coefficient of the radical. 

124. Similar radicals are those which have the same 
index and the same quantity under the radical sign. Thus, 
^sja and ^i,ja are similar radicals. Also 7 *^6 and 10 ^i^b 
are similar radicals. 

125. Reduction of radical quantities is the process of 
changing their forms without altering their values. 

126. A quadratic equation is an equation of the second 
degree, or one which contains the second power of the 
unknown quantity; as x'^—'d, or x"^ -\-^x=a. 



376 THE examiner's companion. 

127. Quadratic equations are divided into two classes, 
called pure and affected. 

128. A pure quadratic equation is one which contains 
the second power only, of the unknown quantity; as, if2 = 
25, or x'^-\-Sab = 2c. Note. — A pure equation, in general, 
is an equation which contains only one power of the 
unknown quantity. 

129. An affected quadratic equation is one which con- 
tains both the second and the first powers of the unknown 
quantity; as, £c2-|-3ic=10. 

130. The root of an equation is such a value as, when sub- 
stituted for the unknown quantity, will satisfy the equation. 

131. An arithmetical progression is a series of quan- 
tities which increase or decrease by a common difference. 
Thus, the following series are in arithmetical progression: 

1, 3, 5, 7, 9. 20, 17, 14, 11, 8. In the first example the 
common difference is 2, and the series forms an increasing 
arithmetical progression; in the second example the com- 
mon difference is 3, and the series forms a decreasing 
arithmetical progression. 

132. The extremes are the first and last terms of the 
series. The means are the intermediate terms. 

133. A geometrical progression is a series of numbers 
increasing or decreasing by a constant multiplier. Thus, 

2, 6, 18, 54, 162, etc., is a geometrical series, in which the 
first term is 2, and the multiplier is 3. 

134. The ratio is the constant multiplier. 

135. Let X represent the distance above the ground; 
then 56 — ;?:;=: the part broken off, which forms the hypothe- 
uuse of a right angled triangle; 12 being the base, and x 
the perpendicular. 

Whence, (56— a3)2 = 144-fa!2 
"56^-112.^=144 

1 1 2x= ^ 2 - f^2 = 68 X 44. 
Dividing by 4, and 28a;= 68X11 

7a;=l7xll = 187; a;=26f, Ans. 



ALGEBRA ANSWERS. 377 

136. Let X represent the cost of the horse; and 144 — 
a-^the gain; 

But 100, gives X. 

Therefore, .« : 144 — j; :: 100 : a; 

a;2 = 14400— lOOx 

a;2 + 100a;+^2 = 14400 + ^2 = 16900 

ic-(-50= ±130; and cc = 80, Ans. 

137. Let 5x and 8x, be the numbers. 
Then, 5.«+200 : 8,^+120 :: 5: 4. 

Divide the 1st and 3d terms by 5; and the 2d and 4th by 4. 

Whence, a;+40 : 2j;+30 :: 1 : 1 

2a;-f-30 = ic+40;x=10; whence, 5a-=50, and8a;=80. 

138. Let a;=the horses; .«-|-3 = the cows. After his 

purchase and sale he had {x — S) horses, and {x-{-5) cows. 

x-\-5 „ 

. ! =a;— 3 

5 

x+5=z5x—15; 4a;=20; x = 5. 

139. Leta;=the number of boys; then the charge to 

each was — — . If the number had been x-\-2, the charge 

X 

to each would have been 

1200 



x-\-2 
Whence, 1200_ 1200 



X x-\-S 

40 40 



}-30 



■fl 



X x-\-2 

40a;+80 = 40.x+a;2 + 2a;; 
Whence, a;2 ^2*4-1 =81. 

x-{-l =±9; and x=8. 
140. Let (x—y), x, and (x+i/), represent the numbers. 
Sum, 3a;=15; cc = 5. 
Product, x{x^-i/^) = 5 (25-2/2) = 80 

25—2/2 = 16; 9=t/2j andy=3. 








INDGX. 



TiTLK Page, 3 

Preface, -- 5 

Theory and Practice of Teaching Questions, 9 

Theory and Practice of Teaching Answers, 14 

Parliamentary Rules Questions, - - - 36 

Parliamentary Rules Answers, - - 39 

Composition and Rhetoric Questions, - - 57 

Composition and Rhetoric Answers, - - 64 

La\\'° Questions, 102 

Law Answers, - -- - - - 109 

American Literature, 138 

English Literature, 174 

Geology Questions, 214 

Geology Answers, 219 

Zoology, 243 

Chemistry Questions, 27] 

Chemistry Answers, - - - -- -270 

Logic Questions, 299 

Logic Answers, 302 

Practical Information Questions, - - 310 

Practical Information Answers, - - - 314 

Mental Arithmetic Questions, - - - 332 

Mental Arithmetic Answers, - - - - 343 

Algebra Questions, 357 

Algebra Answers, 363 



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